Primary Schools

Systematic synthetic phonics (SSP) is a method of teaching reading that starts from the smallest units of sound (phonemes), teaches children the corresponding letter patterns (graphemes), and systematically teaches them to blend those sounds to read words they have never seen before. "Systematic" means phoneme-grapheme correspondences are taught in a planned, cumulative sequence rather than as needed. "Synthetic" means blending sounds together to synthesise a word. The Rose Review (2006) concluded that SSP is the most effective approach for teaching all children to decode, including those at risk of reading failure. Johnston and Watson's Clackmannanshire study (2005) found that learners taught SSP were seven months ahead in reading and spelling by the end of primary school. SSP is now statutory in England and forms the basis of all DfE-approved phonics programmes and the Year 1 Phonics Screening Check.

Concrete-pictorial-abstract (CPA) is a three-stage approach to teaching mathematics in which children first explore concepts using physical objects (concrete), then represent them with images or diagrams (pictorial), then work with abstract symbols such as numbers and operators (abstract). The approach is rooted in Bruner's (1966) theory that children represent knowledge in three modes: enactive (doing), iconic (images), and symbolic (language and notation). In practice, a Year 2 lesson on subtraction might begin with counters on a number line (concrete), move to a drawn number line (pictorial), then introduce the subtraction algorithm (abstract). CPA is central to Singapore and Shanghai mathematics teaching and is now embedded in most mastery mathematics programmes in England. The EEF (2021) reports mastery maths approaches add approximately five months of progress, making it one of the highest-impact primary interventions available.

Play-based learning in EYFS is not simply allowing children to do what they wish. The research distinguishes between child-initiated free play, adult-directed activities, and adult-enhanced play in which adults make targeted contributions to enrich what children are already doing. Siraj-Blatchford et al. (2002) introduced the concept of "sustained shared thinking": moments when practitioners and children work together in intellectual partnership to explore an idea, solve a problem, or clarify a concept. These interactions, embedded within play contexts, are associated with better cognitive and social outcomes than either directive instruction or passive adult observation. The EPPE project (Sylva et al., 2004) found that the most effective EYFS settings combined structured adult-led activities with rich child-initiated play, and that the adult's skill in extending and enriching play was the key differentiator of quality. The 2021 EYFS reforms strengthened the focus on communication and language as the highest-impact early intervention.

Mastery teaching in primary mathematics holds that all children can achieve high standards if they receive high-quality teaching and sufficient time to fully understand each concept before moving on. Rather than accelerating high-achieving learners to new content while slower learners are still consolidating, mastery keeps the class together and provides depth and challenge through richer problems rather than harder topics. The approach draws on practices from Singapore and Shanghai, where curriculum coverage is narrower but deeper, and where learners who fall behind receive same-day "keep-up" support rather than separate intervention pathways. Key principles include: conceptual understanding before procedural fluency, representations (using CPA) to make mathematical structures visible, careful variation in examples to highlight the key features of a concept, and frequent formative assessment. The NCETM and the Maths Hubs have supported mastery teaching in England since 2014, and EEF evaluations report consistent positive effects on attainment.

The primary to secondary transition is associated with a well-documented dip in attainment, particularly in mathematics and English, which many learners do not recover from by the end of KS3. Galton et al. (1999) identified the causes as the disruption to established learning relationships, the shift from one teacher to multiple subject specialists, and a mismatch between the expectations of KS2 and KS3 curricula. Effective transitions involve both information transfer (ensuring secondary teachers know what learners can do and how they learn, not just their SATs scores) and social support (helping learners build new relationships and navigate a much larger institution). Research by the EEF and NFER suggests that transition programmes which extend across the year before and the year after the move are more effective than a single visit day. For learners with SEND or those from disadvantaged backgrounds, the transition dip is typically sharper and longer-lasting, making targeted support even more important.

Hart and Risley (1995) estimated that by age three, children from professional families had heard approximately 30 million more words than children from low-income families: the so-called "word gap". This gap does not simply reflect richer home environments: it directly predicts reading comprehension, academic attainment, and life outcomes at age 10 and beyond. Closing the gap requires systematic vocabulary instruction at scale, not incidental word learning. Beck, McKeown and Kucan (2002) recommend a tiered vocabulary approach: prioritise Tier 2 words (general academic vocabulary that appears across subjects, such as "analyse", "consequence", "significant") as these transfer most widely and are least likely to be encountered outside school. Explicit vocabulary instruction includes: explaining the word in everyday language, providing multiple examples in context, giving learners opportunities to use the word in speech and writing, and revisiting words repeatedly across weeks and subjects. The EEF (2021) reports oral language interventions add an average of seven months of progress, making vocabulary development one of the highest-impact early years and primary investments.

The EEF's Teaching and Learning Toolkit rates metacognition and self-regulation as the highest-impact intervention, adding an average of seven months of progress at very low cost. Contrary to common assumptions, metacognition can be developed in young children: Whitebread et al. (2009) found that children as young as three show metacognitive awareness when engaged in problem-solving play. In primary classrooms, effective metacognition teaching involves three components. Cognitive strategies are specific techniques for completing tasks, such as summarising, visualising, or checking answers. Metacognitive strategies are monitoring and regulating the use of those cognitive strategies: asking "am I understanding this?" and "should I try a different approach?" Motivation and self-belief underpin both: learners need to believe they can improve with effort. Practical primary approaches include: modelling think-alouds, providing self-assessment checklists, teaching learners to plan before writing, and building regular review habits into lessons. The key is explicitly naming the strategy, explaining why it works, and gradually transferring responsibility to learners.