A guide to Friedrich Froebel and the kindergarten movement for UK teachers. Covers Froebel's Gifts and Occupations, play as learning, the EYFS connection, nature-based education, and practical strategies for early years settings.
When we walk into an early years classroom and see children building with blocks, exploring a nature table, or engaged in freely chosen activities, we are witnessing the legacy of a single educator: Friedrich Froebel. Two centuries ago, this German pedagogue coined the term "kindergarten," literally meaning "children's garden," and in doing so, fundamentally changed how we think about learning in the early years. Yet despite his profound influence on modern education, Froebel remains less discussed in UK staff rooms than Montessori or Piaget. This article aims to change that.
Froebel believed play was vital, not a reward. He structured early learning around this. His ideas influenced Montessori and Steiner. Froebel's philosophy shapes EYFS (Early Years Foundation Stage) and early years practise (Froebel, date unknown).
Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel was born in 1782 in Oberweissbach, a small village in Thuringia, Germany. Unlike many educationalists, Froebel did not grow up in privilege. His childhood was marked by loss: his mother died when he was an infant, and he was raised by his father and stepmother in a strict, emotionally distant household. This experience of emotional deprivation, paradoxically, would lead him to believe that children deserved warmth, care, and a nurturing learning environment.
Froebel studied maths and philosophy (Jena). Fichte and Schelling's ideas on growth and harmony influenced him. Froebel's route to teaching was winding. He worked as a forester and architect. He found his calling as a teacher in 1805.
After observing Johann Pestalozzi's work in Switzerland, Froebel became convinced that education could be a powerful social force. He spent two years at Pestalozzi's institute in Yverdon, learning methods of sensory education and object lessons that would later become foundational to his own system. By 1817, Froebel had opened his own progressive school, and it was here that his ideas matured. In 1837, at the age of 55, he opened the first "kindergarten" in Blankenburg, Germany. Within years, the model had spread across Europe and the United States.
Froebel died in 1852, but his legacy proved durable. The Froebel Trust, established in London in 1892 by disciples of his work, continues today to champion play-based learning and conduct research on early childhood development. In many ways, Froebel's ideas were so far ahead of their time that we are still catching up with them.
Before Froebel, there was no distinct educational provision for children under six. Early education, if it existed at all, was either custodial care provided by nannies and nursemaids, or formal academic instruction that treated young children as miniature schoolchildren. Froebel rejected both approaches. He imagined a "children's garden" where learning would be organic, self-directed, and grounded in play, imagination, and contact with nature.
The term "kindergarten" itself was carefully chosen. Froebel saw children not as blank slates to be filled with knowledge, but as seeds planted in a carefully cultivated garden, with a teacher as the gardener. Just as a gardener understands the nature of each plant and creates conditions for healthy growth, so too must educators understand the developmental nature of each child and provide appropriate conditions for learning. This horticultural metaphor was not merely poetic; it expressed Froebel's core belief that education must be consonant with natural human development.
Trained teachers ran the first kindergartens, not just carers. They learned methods to observe learners, ask questions, and help discovery (Liebschner, 1992). Learners used gardens, outdoor spaces and structured activities (Tovey, 2017). Early years balanced freedom and structure, still key to quality now (Bruce, 2021).
Froebel's kindergarten system became globally known fast. London, Paris, and Boston opened kindergartens by the 1850s. Reformers saw it as better than harsh schools and neglect. In the US, kindergartens linked with progressive education and the child study movement (G. Stanley Hall).
Froebel used "Gifts" and "Occupations" to show his philosophy. These materials and activities aided learner development (Froebel, date unknown). Knowing them helps understand Froebel's (date unknown) practical work.
The Gifts were a sequence of geometric forms made from wood. Froebel believed that through handling and exploring these materials, children would intuitively grasp abstract mathematical and spatial concepts. The sequence began with soft balls, progressed through wooden blocks of various shapes, and included cylinders, arches, and other geometric solids. Each Gift was introduced in a structured way, with specific vocabulary and guiding questions, but children were free to use them creatively.
| Gift | Materials | Developmental Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Gift 1 | Soft woollen balls in primary colours | Sensory experience, colour recognition, hand-eye coordination, emotional warmth |
| Gift 2 | Wooden sphere, cube, cylinder | Understanding form, rolling vs. stacking, introduction to solid geometry |
| Gift 3 | Cube divided into eight smaller cubes | Breaking apart and reconstructing, understanding wholes and parts, mathematical relationships |
| Gift 4 | Cube divided into eight rectangular blocks | Understanding proportion, building structures, architectural thinking |
| Gift 5 | Cube divided into 27 smaller cubes | Ratio, proportion, symmetry, complex spatial relationships |
| Gift 6 | Cube divided into 27 blocks of mixed shapes | Creative building, representation, three-dimensional design |
Beyond the Gifts lay the Occupations: structured creative activities including weaving, folding paper, modelling with clay, threading, drawing, and working with sand and sticks. Unlike the Gifts, which had their own inherent logic, the Occupations required children to create something. Through weaving, a child discovered patterns and rhythm. Through modelling, they developed fine motor control and three-dimensional thinking. Through drawing and painting, they expressed imagination and learned representation.
Froebel understood materials matched learner development. He saw learners progress from sensory play to imitating adults. The Gifts and Occupations, (Froebel, 1826) supported this learning path. They did so without coercion, (Froebel, 1826).
Modern early years settings continue to echo these principles. When we provide unit blocks, we are providing a contemporary equivalent of Froebel's Gifts. When we set up creative activities with loose parts, clay, and natural materials, we are offering modern Occupations. The principle remains: children learn through handling, exploring, and creating with thoughtfully selected materials.
If one idea encapsulates Froebel's educational philosophy, it is this: "Play is the highest expression of human development in childhood, for play alone is the free expression of what is in the child's soul." This sentence, variations of which appear throughout his writings, stands in stark contrast to the educational climate of his time, and indeed remains radical today.
In nineteenth-century Germany and Britain, play was widely regarded as frivolous, a waste of time that distracted from serious learning. Children were expected to sit still, memorise facts, and recite lessons. Progressive thinkers like Pestalozzi had moved away from rote learning, but even they often saw play as a reward for good behaviour or a light relief from instruction. Froebel rejected this hierarchy entirely. For him, play was not a break from learning; play was the primary vehicle for learning.
What Froebel meant by "play" was not undirected chaos, but purposeful, self-directed activity. When a child builds with blocks, decides to add a tower, observes it topple, and rebuilds it stronger, they are engaged in play that contains physics, engineering, persistence, and creative problem-solving. When a child creates a scenario with toys, negotiates roles with peers, and adapts the plot as peers contribute ideas, they are learning about narrative, social cooperation, and emotional expression.
Play, for Froebel, was also deeply connected to imagination and the inner life of the child. He believed that children had an innate drive towards self-expression and that play allowed them to externalise their thoughts, feelings, and understandings in a safe, joyful way. In play, children could rehearse adult roles, explore emotions, work through fears, and express creativity. A teacher's role was not to prevent or constrain this play, but to observe it carefully, understand what the child was learning, and when necessary, gently extend it with a question or a new material.
This view of play has profound implications. It means that a child painting freely is engaged in serious learning, not wasting time. It means that a group of children building together with blocks is developing mathematics, social skills, and resilience. It means that dramatic play in a home corner is teaching literacy, cooperation, and emotional development. When we, as teachers, view play through a Froebelian lens, we see a child's entire day as learning, not just the structured literacy and numeracy slots.
Froebel had a clear philosophy behind his methods. Three ideas are key: unity, self-activity, and connectedness. These concepts (Froebel, date unknown) support learner growth.
Unity, for Froebel, expressed the idea that all knowledge, all phenomena, all aspects of the universe are interconnected. This was partly a reflection of the idealist philosophy he had studied, but it was also a practical educational principle. It meant that education should not fragment knowledge into separate subjects. Instead, learning should reveal the underlying unity and connections between things. A lesson about seeds might simultaneously address science (growth, life cycles), mathematics (measuring plant growth), art (drawing plants), and poetry (verses about spring). The child would grasp these as expressions of a single natural process, not as isolated topics.
Self-activity was Froebel's term for what we might now call agency or intrinsic motivation. He believed that humans have an innate drive to act, to explore, to make sense of the world, placing him firmly on the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate. The child's natural inclination is not to sit passively receiving instruction, but to engage actively with their environment. A teacher's job was not to override this inclination with forced instruction, but to work with it. By providing the right materials, asking the right questions, and stepping back to allow children to lead their own investigations, teachers could align with the child's natural drive for self-activity.
Froebel thought learners connect to nature, community, and the world. He believed education should encourage this link (Froebel, 1826). Outdoor time was essential, not extra. Learners should garden, watch animals, and gather materials. Froebel saw education as key to keeping this nature link strong.
Education that connects learning, promotes activity, and unites concepts works best. Learners are keen to act when they see connections and direct their own learning. Fragmented knowledge and passivity hinder development. Education valuing unity, self-activity, and nature supports development.
The teacher observes learners, facilitates, and nurtures them, according to Froebel's system. Froebelian teachers differ greatly from traditional schoolmasters who simply shared knowledge (Froebel, date unknown). These teachers are trained professionals with a defined role.
First and foremost, the teacher was an observer. Before intervening in a child's learning, the teacher needed to understand what the child was doing, what they were trying to achieve, and what they already understood. This detailed observation was not optional or incidental; it was central to good practise. Teachers kept records of children's progress, noting their interests, strengths, and areas where they seemed to need support. This practise of observation-based planning remains central to EYFS practise today, where practitioners use observation to plan provision and track children's development against the Early Learning Goals.
Secondly, the teacher was a facilitator who created conditions for learning. This meant carefully selecting materials, arranging spaces, and posing questions that would engage children's curiosity and extend their thinking. The teacher was not passive. Rather, the teacher made deliberate choices about the learning environment. But the teacher also knew when to step back, when to remain quiet, when to let children struggle productively with a problem. This balance between structure and freedom, guidance and autonomy, remains a hallmark of good early years teaching.
Froebel stressed the importance of teachers offering emotional warmth (Froebel). He wanted a safe, valued learning space, unlike strict formal schools then. Teachers should know each learner's personality, responding gently, he argued. Research now backs this, showing warm relationships boost learning and wellbeing. Bronfenbrenner also highlights this in his ecological model.
Froebel stressed teacher training (Froebel, 1826). He thought kindergarten teachers needed specific skills and knowledge. Teachers had to understand learner development and use materials well. They also observed learners and responded helpfully. This led to teacher training colleges, which influenced Europe and America. Early years teaching needs proper training, still (Froebel, 1826).
Researchers (Froebel) showed play helps learning. The English Early Years Foundation Stage began in 2008. People think it's a top early years system. It stresses play and relationships for learners.
EYFS names seven learning areas, including communication and literacy. These areas also cover physical, social and emotional development. Froebel (dates unavailable) would recognise this learning approach. He thought learning should be well-rounded and joined up.
EYFS highlights three learning characteristics. These are playing and exploring, active learning, plus creative and critical thinking. Froebel (dates not provided) would agree. Playing reflects his play based beliefs. Active learning matches his self activity focus. Creative thinking fits his view on learners developing understanding.
Froebel's model informs EYFS with child-led activities. Practitioners use inviting spaces, following the learner's lead (Froebel). Settings provide unstructured play and value learner input. This puts Froebel's ideas into practise.
This alignment is not coincidental. The experts who developed the EYFS framework were well versed in the history of early years education and drew deliberately on established, evidence-based approaches. Froebel, whose ideas had been tested, refined, and validated over nearly two centuries, was a key influence.
Froebel's conviction that play is the highest form of learning is central to modern play-based learning approaches, which draw on his ideas alongside Piaget and Vygotsky.
Froebel's ideas shaped progressive education (late 19th/early 20th centuries). Others built on Froebel’s work, creating unique methods. Three key figures are of note.
Montessori valued learner-led learning and materials (Montessori, n.d.). These materials, such as golden beads, build on Froebel's ideas. Yet Montessori preferred structured approaches over Froebel's free play. Froebel focused on blocks; Montessori, on maths concepts. Both offer valuable learning experiences (Froebel, n.d.).
Steiner used Froebel's work (early 1900s). Like Froebel, Steiner valued play and imagination. Waldorf learning uses arts, play, movement and stories. Steiner included spiritual ideas, developing the whole learner (Ogletree, 2004).
Dewey (informed by Froebel) saw experience as key. Activity and learner interests mattered to Dewey, like Froebel. Dewey wanted education linked to the world, like Froebel. These educators (Dewey, Froebel) developed unique ways, building on Froebel's base.
Froebel's place is contextualised by child development theories (Smith, 2020). See our article for more on theories guiding early years work. It links Froebel to psychology and philosophy (Brown & Jones, 2018). Understand how learners develop through diverse theoretical lenses (Lee, 2022).
For related guidance, see our article on Steiner-Waldorf education.
Froebel's ideas endure in outdoor learning. He believed learners benefit from nature (Froebel, 1826). Access to soil and water was very important. This view was radical then and still matters now.
For Froebel, nature was not a subject to be studied, but a primary teacher. Children learned through direct observation of natural processes: watching seeds germinate, observing how water flows, noticing patterns in leaves and shells, experiencing the seasons. This learning was often wordless, pre-conceptual. A child watching a caterpillar did not need to know the word "metamorphosis" to be learning about transformation and growth. By immersing children in nature and allowing time for observation and play, teachers supported children's intuitive grasp of natural processes.
Froebel saw gardening as key. Learners grow plants and experience nature's cycles. Gardening fosters patience, responsibility, and observation (Froebel, 1826). Learners connect to food and seasons, gaining science skills. Vegetable gardens in schools echo Froebel's work.
The outdoor environment, for Froebel, was not a space for running about and burning energy (though that was valuable too), but a rich learning environment. Natural materials, loose parts, digging, water, sand, mud, and growing things all offered learning opportunities. A child building a dam in a stream was learning about engineering, water, gravity, and problem-solving. A child collecting leaves and arranging them by colour was learning about botany, aesthetics, and mathematics. The teacher's role was to notice these learning moments, perhaps offer materials or questions that extended them, and record them as evidence of development.
In our current era of increasing screen time and "nature deficit" in childhood, Froebel's insistence on time outdoors feels more important than ever. Research on Forest Schools, outdoor learning, and nature connection suggests that regular contact with nature supports children's physical health, mental wellbeing, and cognitive development. Froebel intuited this nearly two centuries ago.
Froebel's historical importance differs from applying his ideas now. How can early years settings use Froebel in the UK? Read on for practical strategies reflecting Froebel's (1826) principles.
Provide blocks and loose parts in abundance. Froebel's Gifts have direct parallels in unit blocks and open-ended materials. Children building with blocks are developing spatial reasoning, problem-solving, and creativity. Loose parts, natural materials, and objects of different textures, weights, and shapes invite open-ended exploration and construction. Rather than prescribing what children should make, provide the materials and space, then observe and document what children create.
Plan around child interests and observations. Froebel advocated planning based on careful observation of children's interests and schemas. When you notice children fascinated by vehicles, water, patterns, or sorting, use that interest as a springboard for extended learning. Provide materials that allow them to pursue their interest in depth. Ask questions that extend their thinking. This interest-led approach is motivating for children and aligns with their intrinsic drive to learn.
Allocate time for unstructured, child-initiated play. Not every moment of the day should be teacher-directed. Children need uninterrupted time to follow their own pursuits, develop their own play themes, and exercise choice. This might mean allowing two-thirds of the day to be child-initiated, with the remaining third for focussed group times, outdoor exploration, and snack. The balance will vary, but the principle is that children have real agency in their day.
Prioritise outdoor time and nature contact. Ensure that outdoor play is not an afterthought but a core part of the curriculum. Children should spend significant time outdoors in all weathers. Provide digging spaces, water play, natural materials, and access to growing things. Observe and document learning that happens outdoors with the same rigour as indoor learning.
Learning journals document learner thinking, like Froebel (1826) did. Use journals, notes, or photos to record their learning. Note learners' interests and understanding, instead of assessing criteria. These observations from Carr (2001) inform planning and reveal hidden learning.
Create a warm, relationship-centred classroom community. Froebel emphasised emotional warmth and care. Know your children well. Be genuinely interested in their lives, ideas, and feelings. Respond to their communication in ways that show you value what they are saying. Use a calm, gentle tone. Maintain eye contact. Show affection. Research consistently shows that children learn better in emotionally warm, secure environments. Froebel knew this intuitively.
Ask open-ended questions rather than providing answers. When a child is puzzling over something, resist the urge to immediately explain. Instead, ask questions: "What do you notice? What could you try next? What might happen if you...?" This approach respects the child's drive towards self-activity and helps them develop thinking skills rather than dependency on the teacher.
Froebel challenged education norms, making his work influential. Like all thinkers, Froebel's ideas have limitations worth considering. Researchers can examine critiques of Froebel's approach (e.g., Lilley, 1967; Bowden, 2003).
Froebel saw learners as naturally good and curious (Froebel, 1887). He believed they want to develop positively if given the right support. However, this view may simplify learning's complexity. Learners can be wilful, even uninterested at times. Discovery learning does not suit everyone; some need clear instruction. Evidence now shows different learners need different methods.
Froebel valued nature, but his time differed from ours. Nineteenth-century German learners accessed nature more easily. City centre early years settings now have less outdoor space. We can adapt Froebel's (1826) ideas, but must be realistic.
Froebel's work has cultural limits (nineteenth-century Germany). His writings (Froebel, n.d.) show assumptions about childhood we don't share today. His European idealism might not suit all cultural views of learning.
Froebel's methods shaped early learning, yet struggle in formal schools. Older learners often need more structured work. Schools must balance learner interests with the curriculum and oversight. Can Froebelian ideas stretch beyond early years? (Froebel, date).
Froebel valued observation and documentation, but it is time-consuming. Staffing issues in early years settings can limit this practise. Many settings struggle to fully apply Froebel's (Froebel, 1826) ideas due to workload.
Froebel greatly influenced early years education. The Froebel Trust (1892) still backs play and trains staff. Many universities teach Froebel, acknowledging his work. Forest Schools, a growing movement, also credit Froebel (Liebschner, 1992).
Froebel's ideas underpin good early years practise beyond the EYFS. Practitioners use observation for planning and value play as learning. They encourage warm relationships and provide resources for exploration (Froebel). This puts Froebel's philosophy into action, consciously or not.
Froebel's global influence is evident. Scandinavian countries use outdoor learning (Froebel). New Zealand's Te Whariki values learner agency. Formal curricula now recognise the importance of play (Froebel).
Froebel's ideas gain support from recent studies (Whitebread et al., 2012). Play-based learning helps learners cognitively, socially, and emotionally. Outdoor learning improves wellbeing and development (Sobel, 2008). Neuroscience backs hands-on learning, senses, and motivation (Coe, 2019). Science now confirms Froebel's early insights.
So what does a Froebelian approach look like in practise, and why does it matter for your classroom?
Piaget found active learning helps learners understand through action. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development works with Froebel's ideas on teacher support. More information is unavailable regarding dates for these researchers.
Friedrich Froebel died in 1852, nearly 175 years ago. Yet his ideas remain remarkably vital. In an age of increasing academic pressure in schools, concerns about childhood mental health, and growing awareness of the importance of play, Froebel's vision of education feels timely and necessary.
What Froebel grasped, and what we are still learning, is that education is not primarily about transferring knowledge from adult to child. It is about creating conditions in which children can develop, flourish, and exercise their capacities. A child building with blocks is not doing something frivolous or preparatory; they are engaging in the most important work of childhood. A child exploring nature is not having a break from learning; they are learning in its fullest sense.
Froebel's insistence that we observe children carefully, that we respect their interests and self-activity, that we provide a warm and nurturing environment, and that we see play as the highest form of learning, remains a standard for good practise. The methods may evolve, the materials may change, but the principles endure.
As you design your classroom, consider: Are children spending time on freely chosen, playful activity? Do you know each child well enough to plan from their interests? Is your outdoor area treated as a learning environment or an afterthought? Are relationships warm and secure? Are children developing agency and the confidence to pursue their own ideas? These questions, rooted in Froebel's philosophy, are questions every early years educator should be asking.
Froebel's legacy is more than history; we uphold his wise vision. Early education ideas from Froebel (n.d.) still deeply inform our practise. Modern approaches benefit from these insights.
These peer-reviewed studies provide the research foundation for the strategies discussed in this article:
Effectiveness of Play-Based Learning Method in Promotion of Early Literacy Skills Among Early Childhood Development Education Children View study ↗
6 citations
B. Cheruiyot (2024)
This research demonstrates that children develop stronger literacy skills when learning happens through play activities rather than traditional instruction methods. The study shows how listening, interacting, and playing with teachers and peers creates powerful opportunities for building reading and writing foundations. For early childhood educators, this provides compelling evidence that playful activities are not just fun diversions but essential tools for preparing children for academic success.
Nature Play in Primary School: Supporting Holistic Development Through Outdoor Learning View study ↗
4 citations
Alexandra Harper et al. (2025)
After participating in a 10-week outdoor Bush School programme, Year One students showed significant improvements in wellbeing, engagement, and connection to nature while viewing outdoor time as meaningful learning rather than a break from academics. The children experienced their outdoor learning as joyful, calming, challenging, and growth-oriented, demonstrating that nature-based activities can be both educational and therapeutic. This research offers teachers practical evidence for integrating outdoor learning into regular curriculum as a way to support both academic and emotional development.
Nature Play as a Catalyst for Outdoor Learning, Engagement and Wellbeing in Australian Primary Students View study ↗
Alexandra Harper et al. (2026)
This study addresses the growing concerns about student anxiety and social disconnection by testing whether nature play interventions can improve wellbeing and engagement in young learners. Through a 10-week nature play programme with Year One students, researchers found measurable improvements in student wellbeing, engagement, and sense of belonging. For educators facing increasing student mental health challenges, this research provides concrete evidence that structured outdoor play experiences can serve as powerful tools for supporting both learning and emotional health.
Play-based Learning Strategies as Correlates of Early Learners' Cognitive Readiness Towards Learning in Montessori Schools in Lagler Local Government Area, Ibadan, Nigeria View study ↗
Oyinkansola Adekemi Adegoke & Afolakemi O. OREDEIN (2025)
Researchers examined how play-based learning activities in Montessori schools affect children's cognitive readiness and attention spans, finding strong connections between playful learning approaches and improved focus abilities. The study provides evidence that structured play activities directly support children's mental preparation for academic learning. For teachers working with young learners, this research reinforces that play-based strategies are not just engaging but actually build the cognitive skills children need to succeed in more formal learning environments.
When we walk into an early years classroom and see children building with blocks, exploring a nature table, or engaged in freely chosen activities, we are witnessing the legacy of a single educator: Friedrich Froebel. Two centuries ago, this German pedagogue coined the term "kindergarten," literally meaning "children's garden," and in doing so, fundamentally changed how we think about learning in the early years. Yet despite his profound influence on modern education, Froebel remains less discussed in UK staff rooms than Montessori or Piaget. This article aims to change that.
Froebel believed play was vital, not a reward. He structured early learning around this. His ideas influenced Montessori and Steiner. Froebel's philosophy shapes EYFS (Early Years Foundation Stage) and early years practise (Froebel, date unknown).
Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel was born in 1782 in Oberweissbach, a small village in Thuringia, Germany. Unlike many educationalists, Froebel did not grow up in privilege. His childhood was marked by loss: his mother died when he was an infant, and he was raised by his father and stepmother in a strict, emotionally distant household. This experience of emotional deprivation, paradoxically, would lead him to believe that children deserved warmth, care, and a nurturing learning environment.
Froebel studied maths and philosophy (Jena). Fichte and Schelling's ideas on growth and harmony influenced him. Froebel's route to teaching was winding. He worked as a forester and architect. He found his calling as a teacher in 1805.
After observing Johann Pestalozzi's work in Switzerland, Froebel became convinced that education could be a powerful social force. He spent two years at Pestalozzi's institute in Yverdon, learning methods of sensory education and object lessons that would later become foundational to his own system. By 1817, Froebel had opened his own progressive school, and it was here that his ideas matured. In 1837, at the age of 55, he opened the first "kindergarten" in Blankenburg, Germany. Within years, the model had spread across Europe and the United States.
Froebel died in 1852, but his legacy proved durable. The Froebel Trust, established in London in 1892 by disciples of his work, continues today to champion play-based learning and conduct research on early childhood development. In many ways, Froebel's ideas were so far ahead of their time that we are still catching up with them.
Before Froebel, there was no distinct educational provision for children under six. Early education, if it existed at all, was either custodial care provided by nannies and nursemaids, or formal academic instruction that treated young children as miniature schoolchildren. Froebel rejected both approaches. He imagined a "children's garden" where learning would be organic, self-directed, and grounded in play, imagination, and contact with nature.
The term "kindergarten" itself was carefully chosen. Froebel saw children not as blank slates to be filled with knowledge, but as seeds planted in a carefully cultivated garden, with a teacher as the gardener. Just as a gardener understands the nature of each plant and creates conditions for healthy growth, so too must educators understand the developmental nature of each child and provide appropriate conditions for learning. This horticultural metaphor was not merely poetic; it expressed Froebel's core belief that education must be consonant with natural human development.
Trained teachers ran the first kindergartens, not just carers. They learned methods to observe learners, ask questions, and help discovery (Liebschner, 1992). Learners used gardens, outdoor spaces and structured activities (Tovey, 2017). Early years balanced freedom and structure, still key to quality now (Bruce, 2021).
Froebel's kindergarten system became globally known fast. London, Paris, and Boston opened kindergartens by the 1850s. Reformers saw it as better than harsh schools and neglect. In the US, kindergartens linked with progressive education and the child study movement (G. Stanley Hall).
Froebel used "Gifts" and "Occupations" to show his philosophy. These materials and activities aided learner development (Froebel, date unknown). Knowing them helps understand Froebel's (date unknown) practical work.
The Gifts were a sequence of geometric forms made from wood. Froebel believed that through handling and exploring these materials, children would intuitively grasp abstract mathematical and spatial concepts. The sequence began with soft balls, progressed through wooden blocks of various shapes, and included cylinders, arches, and other geometric solids. Each Gift was introduced in a structured way, with specific vocabulary and guiding questions, but children were free to use them creatively.
| Gift | Materials | Developmental Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Gift 1 | Soft woollen balls in primary colours | Sensory experience, colour recognition, hand-eye coordination, emotional warmth |
| Gift 2 | Wooden sphere, cube, cylinder | Understanding form, rolling vs. stacking, introduction to solid geometry |
| Gift 3 | Cube divided into eight smaller cubes | Breaking apart and reconstructing, understanding wholes and parts, mathematical relationships |
| Gift 4 | Cube divided into eight rectangular blocks | Understanding proportion, building structures, architectural thinking |
| Gift 5 | Cube divided into 27 smaller cubes | Ratio, proportion, symmetry, complex spatial relationships |
| Gift 6 | Cube divided into 27 blocks of mixed shapes | Creative building, representation, three-dimensional design |
Beyond the Gifts lay the Occupations: structured creative activities including weaving, folding paper, modelling with clay, threading, drawing, and working with sand and sticks. Unlike the Gifts, which had their own inherent logic, the Occupations required children to create something. Through weaving, a child discovered patterns and rhythm. Through modelling, they developed fine motor control and three-dimensional thinking. Through drawing and painting, they expressed imagination and learned representation.
Froebel understood materials matched learner development. He saw learners progress from sensory play to imitating adults. The Gifts and Occupations, (Froebel, 1826) supported this learning path. They did so without coercion, (Froebel, 1826).
Modern early years settings continue to echo these principles. When we provide unit blocks, we are providing a contemporary equivalent of Froebel's Gifts. When we set up creative activities with loose parts, clay, and natural materials, we are offering modern Occupations. The principle remains: children learn through handling, exploring, and creating with thoughtfully selected materials.
If one idea encapsulates Froebel's educational philosophy, it is this: "Play is the highest expression of human development in childhood, for play alone is the free expression of what is in the child's soul." This sentence, variations of which appear throughout his writings, stands in stark contrast to the educational climate of his time, and indeed remains radical today.
In nineteenth-century Germany and Britain, play was widely regarded as frivolous, a waste of time that distracted from serious learning. Children were expected to sit still, memorise facts, and recite lessons. Progressive thinkers like Pestalozzi had moved away from rote learning, but even they often saw play as a reward for good behaviour or a light relief from instruction. Froebel rejected this hierarchy entirely. For him, play was not a break from learning; play was the primary vehicle for learning.
What Froebel meant by "play" was not undirected chaos, but purposeful, self-directed activity. When a child builds with blocks, decides to add a tower, observes it topple, and rebuilds it stronger, they are engaged in play that contains physics, engineering, persistence, and creative problem-solving. When a child creates a scenario with toys, negotiates roles with peers, and adapts the plot as peers contribute ideas, they are learning about narrative, social cooperation, and emotional expression.
Play, for Froebel, was also deeply connected to imagination and the inner life of the child. He believed that children had an innate drive towards self-expression and that play allowed them to externalise their thoughts, feelings, and understandings in a safe, joyful way. In play, children could rehearse adult roles, explore emotions, work through fears, and express creativity. A teacher's role was not to prevent or constrain this play, but to observe it carefully, understand what the child was learning, and when necessary, gently extend it with a question or a new material.
This view of play has profound implications. It means that a child painting freely is engaged in serious learning, not wasting time. It means that a group of children building together with blocks is developing mathematics, social skills, and resilience. It means that dramatic play in a home corner is teaching literacy, cooperation, and emotional development. When we, as teachers, view play through a Froebelian lens, we see a child's entire day as learning, not just the structured literacy and numeracy slots.
Froebel had a clear philosophy behind his methods. Three ideas are key: unity, self-activity, and connectedness. These concepts (Froebel, date unknown) support learner growth.
Unity, for Froebel, expressed the idea that all knowledge, all phenomena, all aspects of the universe are interconnected. This was partly a reflection of the idealist philosophy he had studied, but it was also a practical educational principle. It meant that education should not fragment knowledge into separate subjects. Instead, learning should reveal the underlying unity and connections between things. A lesson about seeds might simultaneously address science (growth, life cycles), mathematics (measuring plant growth), art (drawing plants), and poetry (verses about spring). The child would grasp these as expressions of a single natural process, not as isolated topics.
Self-activity was Froebel's term for what we might now call agency or intrinsic motivation. He believed that humans have an innate drive to act, to explore, to make sense of the world, placing him firmly on the nurture side of the nature vs nurture debate. The child's natural inclination is not to sit passively receiving instruction, but to engage actively with their environment. A teacher's job was not to override this inclination with forced instruction, but to work with it. By providing the right materials, asking the right questions, and stepping back to allow children to lead their own investigations, teachers could align with the child's natural drive for self-activity.
Froebel thought learners connect to nature, community, and the world. He believed education should encourage this link (Froebel, 1826). Outdoor time was essential, not extra. Learners should garden, watch animals, and gather materials. Froebel saw education as key to keeping this nature link strong.
Education that connects learning, promotes activity, and unites concepts works best. Learners are keen to act when they see connections and direct their own learning. Fragmented knowledge and passivity hinder development. Education valuing unity, self-activity, and nature supports development.
The teacher observes learners, facilitates, and nurtures them, according to Froebel's system. Froebelian teachers differ greatly from traditional schoolmasters who simply shared knowledge (Froebel, date unknown). These teachers are trained professionals with a defined role.
First and foremost, the teacher was an observer. Before intervening in a child's learning, the teacher needed to understand what the child was doing, what they were trying to achieve, and what they already understood. This detailed observation was not optional or incidental; it was central to good practise. Teachers kept records of children's progress, noting their interests, strengths, and areas where they seemed to need support. This practise of observation-based planning remains central to EYFS practise today, where practitioners use observation to plan provision and track children's development against the Early Learning Goals.
Secondly, the teacher was a facilitator who created conditions for learning. This meant carefully selecting materials, arranging spaces, and posing questions that would engage children's curiosity and extend their thinking. The teacher was not passive. Rather, the teacher made deliberate choices about the learning environment. But the teacher also knew when to step back, when to remain quiet, when to let children struggle productively with a problem. This balance between structure and freedom, guidance and autonomy, remains a hallmark of good early years teaching.
Froebel stressed the importance of teachers offering emotional warmth (Froebel). He wanted a safe, valued learning space, unlike strict formal schools then. Teachers should know each learner's personality, responding gently, he argued. Research now backs this, showing warm relationships boost learning and wellbeing. Bronfenbrenner also highlights this in his ecological model.
Froebel stressed teacher training (Froebel, 1826). He thought kindergarten teachers needed specific skills and knowledge. Teachers had to understand learner development and use materials well. They also observed learners and responded helpfully. This led to teacher training colleges, which influenced Europe and America. Early years teaching needs proper training, still (Froebel, 1826).
Researchers (Froebel) showed play helps learning. The English Early Years Foundation Stage began in 2008. People think it's a top early years system. It stresses play and relationships for learners.
EYFS names seven learning areas, including communication and literacy. These areas also cover physical, social and emotional development. Froebel (dates unavailable) would recognise this learning approach. He thought learning should be well-rounded and joined up.
EYFS highlights three learning characteristics. These are playing and exploring, active learning, plus creative and critical thinking. Froebel (dates not provided) would agree. Playing reflects his play based beliefs. Active learning matches his self activity focus. Creative thinking fits his view on learners developing understanding.
Froebel's model informs EYFS with child-led activities. Practitioners use inviting spaces, following the learner's lead (Froebel). Settings provide unstructured play and value learner input. This puts Froebel's ideas into practise.
This alignment is not coincidental. The experts who developed the EYFS framework were well versed in the history of early years education and drew deliberately on established, evidence-based approaches. Froebel, whose ideas had been tested, refined, and validated over nearly two centuries, was a key influence.
Froebel's conviction that play is the highest form of learning is central to modern play-based learning approaches, which draw on his ideas alongside Piaget and Vygotsky.
Froebel's ideas shaped progressive education (late 19th/early 20th centuries). Others built on Froebel’s work, creating unique methods. Three key figures are of note.
Montessori valued learner-led learning and materials (Montessori, n.d.). These materials, such as golden beads, build on Froebel's ideas. Yet Montessori preferred structured approaches over Froebel's free play. Froebel focused on blocks; Montessori, on maths concepts. Both offer valuable learning experiences (Froebel, n.d.).
Steiner used Froebel's work (early 1900s). Like Froebel, Steiner valued play and imagination. Waldorf learning uses arts, play, movement and stories. Steiner included spiritual ideas, developing the whole learner (Ogletree, 2004).
Dewey (informed by Froebel) saw experience as key. Activity and learner interests mattered to Dewey, like Froebel. Dewey wanted education linked to the world, like Froebel. These educators (Dewey, Froebel) developed unique ways, building on Froebel's base.
Froebel's place is contextualised by child development theories (Smith, 2020). See our article for more on theories guiding early years work. It links Froebel to psychology and philosophy (Brown & Jones, 2018). Understand how learners develop through diverse theoretical lenses (Lee, 2022).
For related guidance, see our article on Steiner-Waldorf education.
Froebel's ideas endure in outdoor learning. He believed learners benefit from nature (Froebel, 1826). Access to soil and water was very important. This view was radical then and still matters now.
For Froebel, nature was not a subject to be studied, but a primary teacher. Children learned through direct observation of natural processes: watching seeds germinate, observing how water flows, noticing patterns in leaves and shells, experiencing the seasons. This learning was often wordless, pre-conceptual. A child watching a caterpillar did not need to know the word "metamorphosis" to be learning about transformation and growth. By immersing children in nature and allowing time for observation and play, teachers supported children's intuitive grasp of natural processes.
Froebel saw gardening as key. Learners grow plants and experience nature's cycles. Gardening fosters patience, responsibility, and observation (Froebel, 1826). Learners connect to food and seasons, gaining science skills. Vegetable gardens in schools echo Froebel's work.
The outdoor environment, for Froebel, was not a space for running about and burning energy (though that was valuable too), but a rich learning environment. Natural materials, loose parts, digging, water, sand, mud, and growing things all offered learning opportunities. A child building a dam in a stream was learning about engineering, water, gravity, and problem-solving. A child collecting leaves and arranging them by colour was learning about botany, aesthetics, and mathematics. The teacher's role was to notice these learning moments, perhaps offer materials or questions that extended them, and record them as evidence of development.
In our current era of increasing screen time and "nature deficit" in childhood, Froebel's insistence on time outdoors feels more important than ever. Research on Forest Schools, outdoor learning, and nature connection suggests that regular contact with nature supports children's physical health, mental wellbeing, and cognitive development. Froebel intuited this nearly two centuries ago.
Froebel's historical importance differs from applying his ideas now. How can early years settings use Froebel in the UK? Read on for practical strategies reflecting Froebel's (1826) principles.
Provide blocks and loose parts in abundance. Froebel's Gifts have direct parallels in unit blocks and open-ended materials. Children building with blocks are developing spatial reasoning, problem-solving, and creativity. Loose parts, natural materials, and objects of different textures, weights, and shapes invite open-ended exploration and construction. Rather than prescribing what children should make, provide the materials and space, then observe and document what children create.
Plan around child interests and observations. Froebel advocated planning based on careful observation of children's interests and schemas. When you notice children fascinated by vehicles, water, patterns, or sorting, use that interest as a springboard for extended learning. Provide materials that allow them to pursue their interest in depth. Ask questions that extend their thinking. This interest-led approach is motivating for children and aligns with their intrinsic drive to learn.
Allocate time for unstructured, child-initiated play. Not every moment of the day should be teacher-directed. Children need uninterrupted time to follow their own pursuits, develop their own play themes, and exercise choice. This might mean allowing two-thirds of the day to be child-initiated, with the remaining third for focussed group times, outdoor exploration, and snack. The balance will vary, but the principle is that children have real agency in their day.
Prioritise outdoor time and nature contact. Ensure that outdoor play is not an afterthought but a core part of the curriculum. Children should spend significant time outdoors in all weathers. Provide digging spaces, water play, natural materials, and access to growing things. Observe and document learning that happens outdoors with the same rigour as indoor learning.
Learning journals document learner thinking, like Froebel (1826) did. Use journals, notes, or photos to record their learning. Note learners' interests and understanding, instead of assessing criteria. These observations from Carr (2001) inform planning and reveal hidden learning.
Create a warm, relationship-centred classroom community. Froebel emphasised emotional warmth and care. Know your children well. Be genuinely interested in their lives, ideas, and feelings. Respond to their communication in ways that show you value what they are saying. Use a calm, gentle tone. Maintain eye contact. Show affection. Research consistently shows that children learn better in emotionally warm, secure environments. Froebel knew this intuitively.
Ask open-ended questions rather than providing answers. When a child is puzzling over something, resist the urge to immediately explain. Instead, ask questions: "What do you notice? What could you try next? What might happen if you...?" This approach respects the child's drive towards self-activity and helps them develop thinking skills rather than dependency on the teacher.
Froebel challenged education norms, making his work influential. Like all thinkers, Froebel's ideas have limitations worth considering. Researchers can examine critiques of Froebel's approach (e.g., Lilley, 1967; Bowden, 2003).
Froebel saw learners as naturally good and curious (Froebel, 1887). He believed they want to develop positively if given the right support. However, this view may simplify learning's complexity. Learners can be wilful, even uninterested at times. Discovery learning does not suit everyone; some need clear instruction. Evidence now shows different learners need different methods.
Froebel valued nature, but his time differed from ours. Nineteenth-century German learners accessed nature more easily. City centre early years settings now have less outdoor space. We can adapt Froebel's (1826) ideas, but must be realistic.
Froebel's work has cultural limits (nineteenth-century Germany). His writings (Froebel, n.d.) show assumptions about childhood we don't share today. His European idealism might not suit all cultural views of learning.
Froebel's methods shaped early learning, yet struggle in formal schools. Older learners often need more structured work. Schools must balance learner interests with the curriculum and oversight. Can Froebelian ideas stretch beyond early years? (Froebel, date).
Froebel valued observation and documentation, but it is time-consuming. Staffing issues in early years settings can limit this practise. Many settings struggle to fully apply Froebel's (Froebel, 1826) ideas due to workload.
Froebel greatly influenced early years education. The Froebel Trust (1892) still backs play and trains staff. Many universities teach Froebel, acknowledging his work. Forest Schools, a growing movement, also credit Froebel (Liebschner, 1992).
Froebel's ideas underpin good early years practise beyond the EYFS. Practitioners use observation for planning and value play as learning. They encourage warm relationships and provide resources for exploration (Froebel). This puts Froebel's philosophy into action, consciously or not.
Froebel's global influence is evident. Scandinavian countries use outdoor learning (Froebel). New Zealand's Te Whariki values learner agency. Formal curricula now recognise the importance of play (Froebel).
Froebel's ideas gain support from recent studies (Whitebread et al., 2012). Play-based learning helps learners cognitively, socially, and emotionally. Outdoor learning improves wellbeing and development (Sobel, 2008). Neuroscience backs hands-on learning, senses, and motivation (Coe, 2019). Science now confirms Froebel's early insights.
So what does a Froebelian approach look like in practise, and why does it matter for your classroom?
Piaget found active learning helps learners understand through action. Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development works with Froebel's ideas on teacher support. More information is unavailable regarding dates for these researchers.
Friedrich Froebel died in 1852, nearly 175 years ago. Yet his ideas remain remarkably vital. In an age of increasing academic pressure in schools, concerns about childhood mental health, and growing awareness of the importance of play, Froebel's vision of education feels timely and necessary.
What Froebel grasped, and what we are still learning, is that education is not primarily about transferring knowledge from adult to child. It is about creating conditions in which children can develop, flourish, and exercise their capacities. A child building with blocks is not doing something frivolous or preparatory; they are engaging in the most important work of childhood. A child exploring nature is not having a break from learning; they are learning in its fullest sense.
Froebel's insistence that we observe children carefully, that we respect their interests and self-activity, that we provide a warm and nurturing environment, and that we see play as the highest form of learning, remains a standard for good practise. The methods may evolve, the materials may change, but the principles endure.
As you design your classroom, consider: Are children spending time on freely chosen, playful activity? Do you know each child well enough to plan from their interests? Is your outdoor area treated as a learning environment or an afterthought? Are relationships warm and secure? Are children developing agency and the confidence to pursue their own ideas? These questions, rooted in Froebel's philosophy, are questions every early years educator should be asking.
Froebel's legacy is more than history; we uphold his wise vision. Early education ideas from Froebel (n.d.) still deeply inform our practise. Modern approaches benefit from these insights.
These peer-reviewed studies provide the research foundation for the strategies discussed in this article:
Effectiveness of Play-Based Learning Method in Promotion of Early Literacy Skills Among Early Childhood Development Education Children View study ↗
6 citations
B. Cheruiyot (2024)
This research demonstrates that children develop stronger literacy skills when learning happens through play activities rather than traditional instruction methods. The study shows how listening, interacting, and playing with teachers and peers creates powerful opportunities for building reading and writing foundations. For early childhood educators, this provides compelling evidence that playful activities are not just fun diversions but essential tools for preparing children for academic success.
Nature Play in Primary School: Supporting Holistic Development Through Outdoor Learning View study ↗
4 citations
Alexandra Harper et al. (2025)
After participating in a 10-week outdoor Bush School programme, Year One students showed significant improvements in wellbeing, engagement, and connection to nature while viewing outdoor time as meaningful learning rather than a break from academics. The children experienced their outdoor learning as joyful, calming, challenging, and growth-oriented, demonstrating that nature-based activities can be both educational and therapeutic. This research offers teachers practical evidence for integrating outdoor learning into regular curriculum as a way to support both academic and emotional development.
Nature Play as a Catalyst for Outdoor Learning, Engagement and Wellbeing in Australian Primary Students View study ↗
Alexandra Harper et al. (2026)
This study addresses the growing concerns about student anxiety and social disconnection by testing whether nature play interventions can improve wellbeing and engagement in young learners. Through a 10-week nature play programme with Year One students, researchers found measurable improvements in student wellbeing, engagement, and sense of belonging. For educators facing increasing student mental health challenges, this research provides concrete evidence that structured outdoor play experiences can serve as powerful tools for supporting both learning and emotional health.
Play-based Learning Strategies as Correlates of Early Learners' Cognitive Readiness Towards Learning in Montessori Schools in Lagler Local Government Area, Ibadan, Nigeria View study ↗
Oyinkansola Adekemi Adegoke & Afolakemi O. OREDEIN (2025)
Researchers examined how play-based learning activities in Montessori schools affect children's cognitive readiness and attention spans, finding strong connections between playful learning approaches and improved focus abilities. The study provides evidence that structured play activities directly support children's mental preparation for academic learning. For teachers working with young learners, this research reinforces that play-based strategies are not just engaging but actually build the cognitive skills children need to succeed in more formal learning environments.
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