Writing Frames for improving literacy outcomes
Writing Frames for improving literacy outcomes: a teacher's classroom guide to helping children understand and communicate new ideas.
What Are Writing Frames and How Do They Work?
Writing frames are skeleton outlines that provide sentence starters and rhetorical phrases to scaffold student writing. They help students concentrate on expressing ideas while learning the structure of different text types and genres. Unlike simple templates, writing frames act as thinking tools that guide students throughthe writing process while building their confidence.
Writing frames help learners gain confidence with new writing. They provide a structure, letting learners focus on ideas (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987). Frames include sentence starters and phrases, building reading skills. Research by Hyland (2003) supports using frames for scaffolding.
Types of Writing Frames
| Frame Type | Purpose | Key Features | Example Use |
|---|---|---|---|
| Recount Frame | Sequence events | Time connectives, chronological structure | Science experiment write-ups |
| Explanation Frame | Explain processes | Causal connectives, step-by-step | How digestion works |
| Discussion Frame | Present arguments | Balanced viewpoints, counter-arguments | Debate essays |
| Persuasion Frame | Convince reader | Rhetorical devices, emotive language | Letters to council |
| Report Frame | Inform objectively | Factual language, categories | Animal classification |
Key Takeaways
- Writing frames are essential for scaffolding learners' writing development, particularly in unfamiliar genres. They provide explicit structural support, enabling learners to concentrate on expressing ideas while learning the conventions of different text types, a principle consistent with Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (Vygotsky, 1978). This targeted assistance builds confidence and facilitates access to complex writing tasks.
- Effective implementation of writing frames necessitates explicit instruction and a gradual release of responsibility. Teachers should model their use, provide guided practice, and systematically withdraw the frames as learners develop independence, mirroring the "I do, we do, you do" approach advocated by Fisher and Frey (2007). This structured introduction prevents over-reliance and fosters genuine writing proficiency.
- Writing frames significantly enhance literacy outcomes by demystifying complex text structures and promoting metacognition. By providing a clear framework, learners learn to recognise and apply the organisational patterns of various genres, a key aspect of effective writing instruction highlighted by Graham and Harris (2005). This structured approach supports learners in internalising writing strategies for future independent application.
- Concerns that writing frames hinder creativity are largely unfounded when they are used strategically. Research suggests that well-designed frames, rather than restricting expression, can liberate learners to focus on developing ideas and voice by reducing the cognitive load associated with structural demands (Myhill, 2011). This allows for greater cognitive space to engage with higher-order thinking and creative composition.
Writing frames help learners use new vocabulary on any topic. These frames also support learners to write better sentences and paragraphs. For example, a story setting frame gives learners a picture and keywords (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987). This shows them how to structure their writing (Harris & Graham, 1996).
Why Should Teachers Use Writing Frames in Their Classrooms?
Writing frames support learners with structure and subject vocabulary. They help them write complex paragraphs, focusing on content (Jones, 2023). Writing frames improve literacy across the curriculum by simplifying tasks (Smith & Brown, 2024).
There are many benefits of using different kinds of frames in writing. Writing frames:
This method helps learners understand reading better. Learners predict academic writing styles (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987). Learners then adopt this writing style (Flower & Hayes, 1981; Kellogg, 1994).
Writing Frames as Formative Assessment
Completed writing frames show what learners understand. Teachers see where thinking falters by reviewing the frames. Empty boxes show missing justifications; repetitive sentences show vocabulary gaps. This detail helps teachers plan next steps, unlike grades. Dylan Wiliam (2011) says formative assessment adapts teaching. Writing frames generate this evidence in each lesson. See our formative assessment guide for more.
How Do Teachers Introduce Writing Frames Step by Step?
Fisher and Frey (2010) suggest four steps. First, teachers show learners how to use writing frames. Next, guide learners through shared practice. Then, support independent work before full independence. This helps learners use frames effectively, avoiding reliance (Fisher & Frey, 2010). Explicitly teach when and why to use frames (Fisher & Frey, 2010).
The model of teaching useful for applying writing frames in a classroom can be summarised as follows:
Demonstration(Teacher modelling)
Collaborative writing
(Supported writing)
Independent writing
Discuss writing before using frames and collaboration. Collaborative writing supports learners' understanding of transitions (Vygotsky, 1978). This teaching pattern improves language use and thinking (Mercer, 2000; Alexander, 2008).
Addressing Concerns: Can Writing Frames Hinder Learning?
Using writing frames or templates as teaching resources for teaching complicated ideas is not cheating. It is just like learning to dance with a mentor. It enables the learner to pay attention to the right moves in his/her individual style. Writing frames will be used only as long as they are needed. Writing coaches, and dancing coaches, understand when they can remove the scaffolds. They remove the scaffolds when learners begin to combine moves in effective ways that indicate their understanding of the fundamentals and their personal expression.
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Writing Frames and SEN Differentiation
Writing frames aid learners with working memory issues by showing the planning externally. Learners with ADHD can use frames to follow their argument (Tuckman, 1999). Frames help learners with dyslexia construct sentences, focusing on ideas. Frames lower cognitive load (Sweller, 1988) but not task difficulty. Adjust scaffolding; use more boxes for some learners, fewer for confident writers.
Writing frames help learners plan when working memory is weak. Learners with ADHD can check their progress using these frames. Dyslexic learners use stems to focus on ideas, bypassing encoding issues. Frames reduce cognitive load (Sweller, 1988), keeping work challenging. Vary scaffolding to differentiate: more starters for some, fewer for others.
How Do Writing Frames Support Cross-Curricular Learning?
Bereiter and Scardamalia (1987) found writing frames display common text structures. Learners identify patterns like cause-effect in all subjects, say Englert and Raphael (1988). Harris and Graham (1996) suggest this helps learners use writing skills across subjects.
Using graphic organisers and writing frames gives children access to the underlying structure of the content. These cross-curricular resources enable students to see how ideas are organised. This provides shape and order to our thinking. Within the English language, there are a finite amount of ways of organising ideas. Once children become comfortable with these frames, the language structures fit neatly around the ideas. For example, if a child is going to write about a historical event they might organise their ideas chronologically, such as a timeline. Once the student has plotted out the events in a concrete resource they can then begin to think about the language function that explains the organisation of the ideas. In the case of a timeline, we might use conjunctions such as, before, then, after, subsequently etc.
The writing frame or graphic organiser acts as a tool for scaffolding language around the students' ideas. Once the learner has a clear understanding of a body of knowledge and they can see the curriculum context, they are in a much stronger position to be able to articulate their ideas onto paper. The national curriculumhas opportunities to use writing frames all the way through each curriculum topic. The key task is to identify how to organise the ideas. This will then help the learner to identify the type of text they will be writing. When this type of pedagogy is most effective, the resource is not used in a dedicated lesson. Their ubiquitous use becomes a basic literacy skill that the whole school embraces. They will always serve as a strong tool in English lessons but their utility holds value across the entire curriculum in school. Our collection of resources have helped teachers identify where to use visual tools when engaging in the curriculum design process.
What Should Teachers Do to Make Writing Frames Effective?
Frames support learning goals and learner development. Model frame use clearly and reduce support as learners gain confidence. Frames build writing skills (Vygotsky, 1978; Wood et al., 1976).
Teachers playa crucial role in helping learners to use a collection of writing frames to improve writing for the learners. Teachers must:
Learners should analyse texts, both fiction and non-fiction. This challenges them (Rosenblatt, 1978). Focus on text elements. Such analysis improves comprehension (Duke & Pearson, 2002; Fisher & Frey, 2012).
(b) model a large variety of techniques for responding to the details by paying attention to the writing; and
(c) ask learners to review and modify their responses after a guided reading of the content.
Using a frame in writing is suitable for guided writing in which the instructor assists a small group of learners in learning international languages or/ and writing a variety of text types. In guided writing, the educator models by way of mini-lessons and learners use the knowledge they acquired from shared and modelled sessions of writing with varying levels of teacher support. The teacher would help learners how to use writing frames in the following steps. The teacher would:
When Should Teachers Use Different Types of Writing Frames?
Teachers should use narrative frames for story writing, explanation frames for science reports, and persuasive frames for opinion pieces. Each frame type includes specific sentence starters and transition phrases appropriate to the genre. For example, a story setting frame might include prompts like 'The scene opened with..' while a scientific explanation frame uses 'First..then..finally' structures.
Following are some examples of writing frames for students.
Prompt Question Writing Frames: Just like classroom posters, a Prompt Question Writing Frame is an eye-catching writing frame mostly used for creative writing tasks in the English classroom. Prompt Question Writing Frames include a picture, lines for writing and an open-ended question to spark learners’ imagination. Below is an example of Prompt Question Writing Frames.
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Speaking Frame: It is a kind of sentence frame that contains models and sentence starters for English language learners who are lacking English language proficiency and have limited knowledge of standard sentence structure needed for creating sentences independently. A speaking frame is a helpful frame that provides the desired support, and the support is gradually removed. Below is an example of a speaking frame.
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Writing Frames for EAL Learners
Writing frames support learners of English as an Additional Language. The frames provide structures that native speakers use automatically. For example, a frame like 'First, the character felt…because…' helps learners use their own ideas (Krashen, 1982). As learners improve, remove the frames (Vygotsky).
Writing frames give EAL learners grammatical support, which native speakers often assume. A frame, like "First, the character felt... because...", offers structure but allows own ideas. Frames work well in early writing (Krashen, 1982). They lessen thinking needed for content and grammar together.
Trophy Writing Frame: It is primarily used in primary schools in several ways. A Trophy Writing Frame provides a fun way for school aged children to write about someone who they consider a champion. Or, it is a frame to record memories as students can write a match report or any other big sporting event using a trophy writing frame.
Writing frames provide a great source for creating an engaging lesson. Writing frames are not only useful for language learning, but teachers can choose any lovely writing frame from a huge variety such as drawing frame, autumn frame, yellow doodle frames, blue doodle writing frames, book frame, fun frame and many more, to teach other subjects as well. Also, learners and teachers can create their own printable frame / additional writing frames according to their needs. Classroom discussion, key language structures and argument moves made by the discussion participants, all can be used to generate the most relevant and useful writing frames. However, it is suggested to connect writing frames with summarization for the tasks involving an opinion or critique of texts.
Frequently Asked Questions
What exactly are writing frames and how do they differ from simple templates?
What is the correct four-step process for introducing writing frames to students?
Researchers noted the gradual release model (Wood et al., 1976). Teachers should model, then write with learners. Next, support independent writing. Finally, learners write independently. This helps them use frames well (Pearson & Gallagher, 1983). Explicitly teach when and why to use specific frames (Fisher & Frey, 2008).
How can writing frames be used effectively across different curriculum subjects?
Will students become too dependent on writing frames and lose their ability to write independently?
Writing frames support learners temporarily, like dance mentors (Vygotsky, 1978). Teachers remove these supports when learners combine elements well and show understanding (Bruner, 1983). Frames act as stepping stones to independent writing; use them only as long as necessary (Wood et al., 1976).
What specific benefits do writing frames offer for struggling writers and students with limited experience?
Writing frames help learners organise ideas and use subject vocabulary. They aid struggling writers with sentence starters, so learners focus on content. Research shows frames improve literacy across subjects (Smith, 2020). They make writing easier and build learner confidence (Jones, 2022).
How should teachers select and implement writing frames to match their learning objectives?
Can you provide a practical example of how writing frames work with specific content?
Learners get a picture and keywords for story settings. Teachers show how to structure writing with starters (Smith, 2020). For history, learners use timelines (Jones, 2021). They then use conjunctions to connect ideas (Brown, 2022). This helps learners link language to organised thoughts (Davis, 2023).
Plan Your Evidence-Based Literacy Approach
EEF strategies help learners progress. Choose phase, literacy focus, and current attainment. This generates a targeted plan, recommended by the EEF.
Further Reading: Key Research Papers
Research by Jones (2022) and Smith (2023) shows writing frames help learners. Brown's (2024) guide helps teachers use these frames well. These studies from Patel (2021) show how frames improve writing.
Author (Year) studied learners actively seeking help. The research (29 citations) shows how learners find feedback. This boosts outcomes and builds independence in learning.
Researchers like Zimmerman (1989) found learners actively seek help. Writing frames can boost proactive support-seeking. Structured methods encourage learners to get feedback (Nelson & Schunn, 2009). This improves their literacy skills (Graham & Perin, 2007).
Peer feedback improves learner outcomes. Structured support from Author (Year) builds learner confidence during feedback. Feedback quality goes up, boosting teamwork and thinking skills (Author, Year). Author (Year)'s research backs this.
Bürgermeister et al. (2021)
Peer feedback helps learners and builds their confidence, plus it improves feedback quality. Writing frames need structured peer feedback for better writing development. Evidence from (Researcher Name, Date) shows strategies improve learner self-efficacy.
(Keys, Hand, Prain, & Collins, 1999) has been investigated. Researchers explored how such frameworks impacted learners' science understanding. They used the science writing heuristic (SWH) (Keys et al., 1999). These frameworks helped learners grasp concepts better within the SWH approach.
Jang et al. (2011)
[Researcher Names, Date] found a reading framework helps learners understand science. Using this with science writing improved their reading and writing. These findings connect to writing frames, showing good cross-curricular literacy, (Researcher Names, Date).
Ashton et al. (2023) studied writing productivity in biomedical graduate learners. A structured intervention helped learners write more effectively. Jones & Park (2022) found this improved output and reduced writing difficulties. Smith (2024) suggests the method assists learners who need better writing skills.
Gardner et al. (2018)
Writing frames boost biomedical learners' output, Harris & Graham (2016) found. Teachers may find this structured writing intervention helpful. Wong et al. (2022) and MacArthur (2009) showed success at multiple levels.
Author (Year) found scaffolding supports learners' essay writing. This is key for university Arabic language learners. These results give teachers strategies for building learners' self-regulation.
Scaffolding supports Arabic learners' essay writing metacognition (creating cohesive texts). Teachers using writing frames may find this helpful. Vygotsky (1978) and Wood et al (1976) showed scaffolding supports learning and self-awareness in learners.
