Literacy Pedagogy: Teaching Reading and Writing Well

Literacy pedagogy means how we teach learners reading fluency strategies, writing, and speaking. Research on how the brain reads, makes meaning and expresses ideas informs this teaching. Good practice links these skills. Learners develop decoding, understanding and writing together.

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What is Literacy Pedagogy?

The DfE Reading Framework (Department for Education, 2023) guides schools on reading, fluency and comprehension up to Year 9. EEF literacy guidance covers oral language, phonics, comprehension, writing and practice. Teach these as linked strands, not a checklist of separate skills.

Shanahan et al. (2010) recommend explicit comprehension strategies, attention to text structure and focused discussion for young readers. One way to link the strands in a lesson is to ask learners to explain a passage aloud, then write a response.

Spoken language also needs direct teaching. This guide connects these strands.

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The Simple View of Reading

The Simple View of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) says reading needs two linked skills. Decoding (word recognition) and language comprehension are both vital. Language comprehension involves understanding sentences and linking ideas.

Reading Comprehension = Decoding × Language Comprehension

The multiplication sign matters. If either skill is absent, reading comprehension fails. A Year 3 learner may read "cat sat on mat" aloud but not know that "feline" means cat. Strong spoken language is not enough either. Without decoding, the learner cannot read the words alone.

Primary schools need to build phonics and language skills together. At Key Stage 3, many learners can decode with less effort. Teachers can then focus more on meaning and writing within subjects. Some learners still need help with decoding.

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Key Approaches to Teaching Reading

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Systematic Synthetic Phonics in England

In an England classroom, check the next grapheme in the school’s phonics programme and gather words that use it. Revisit earlier links before learners meet the new one. The English national curriculum emphasises systematic phonics for beginners. The Department for Education (2023) recommends SSP and close alignment with the chosen programme. Schools elsewhere in the UK should use their own guidance.

What is SSP? SSP teaches learners to link graphemes (written letters or letter groups) to phonemes (speech sounds). To read a word, learners say the sounds from left to right and blend them. To spell it, they segment the spoken word and choose graphemes they know. A teacher can model /s/ /a/ /t/, then blend the sounds to read “sat”. The exact order of graphemes follows the school’s programme.

Why SSP? English spelling has many sound-letter links and some less common spellings. Systematic phonics gives beginners a way to read unfamiliar words instead of guessing from a picture or memorising each word’s shape. Rose’s independent review (2006) recommended systematic phonics as the prime approach to teaching early decoding and spelling. The Department for Education reading framework (2023) sets out England’s current SSP guidance. Use this approach for the next unfamiliar word, then check that the sentence makes sense.

First sound-letter links: Put three taught graphemes on cards. Say each sound, then move the cards together as learners blend the word. Ask one learner to point to each grapheme while another says the sound. Listen for the link they still need to practise. Choose words from the school’s programme so the task builds on prior teaching.

Further spellings: As the programme progresses, learners meet other graphemes and alternative spellings. For example, “ai” in “rain” and “ay” in “say” can represent the same vowel sound. Model the new link, revisit earlier ones and practise reading and spelling words that contain them. Introduce each example when it fits the programme’s sequence.

Less common and exception words: Teach learners to notice which parts of a word use familiar sound-letter links and which parts are unusual. The national curriculum names common exception words; teach them within the school’s programme. Revisit these words while learners continue to read and enjoy a wide range of books.

A classroom example (Year 1): Teacher holds up a grapheme card with "oa" on it. "This is oa. It makes the /oa/ sound. Hear it?" (Pronounces clearly.) Learners repeat: "/oa/." Teacher shows a picture of a boat and a coat. "Boat has oa. Coat has oa." Teacher writes "boat" on the board, pointing: "b-oa-t. Boat."

Learners blend chorally. Teacher then shows words (goat, coat, toad) and learners blend each one. Finally, learners take individual grapheme cards and try to read words with oa: "load," "soap." Teacher corrects and praises. This focused, scaffolded practice is SSP in action.

When a beginner meets an unfamiliar printed word, ask them to use the sound-letter links they know, then check whether the word makes sense in the sentence. Rose (2006) recommended systematic phonics as a prime approach to early word reading. In a lesson, listen to each learner blend rather than treating a guessed word as secure reading.

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Reading Comprehension Strategies

Teach language and comprehension while learners are still learning to decode. As word reading becomes more automatic, give learners richer texts and questions. Readers can use metacognitive strategies. They predict, picture scenes, ask questions and sum up what they read. Model the strategy with a real passage before asking learners to use it themselves.

Strategy 1: Predicting Before and during reading, good readers predict what happens next. A teacher might read the title and first paragraph of a chapter and pause: "What do you think will happen next? Why?" Learners commit to a prediction (verbally or in writing). As reading continues, they check their prediction against the text. Checking a prediction helps learners test what the text says.

Strategy 2: Visualising Readers construct mental images from words. Teaching visualisation develops this skill. A teacher might read a passage and pause: "Close your eyes and picture this scene. What do you see? What sounds might you hear?" Learners draw or describe their visualisations.

A drawing or spoken account lets the teacher hear what learners understood.

Strategy 3: Questioning Comprehension monitoring involves asking questions while reading: "Did I understand that sentence?" "Why did the character act that way?" "How does this connect to what I read earlier?" Ask learners to pause and question the text as they read. This lets them spot gaps in meaning sooner.

Strategy 4: Summarising To sum up a text, learners must choose its main ideas. A Year 3 teacher might read a paragraph and ask: "In one sentence, what happened in this paragraph?" Summarising forces learners to identify main ideas versus supporting details. Learners can use this skill in science, history and geography.

Scarborough's Rope Model (2001) shows how learners build reading comprehension. Word recognition and language comprehension form the "rope's" strands. Vocabulary, syntax, knowledge, and inference create language comprehension.

Phonological awareness and decoding support word recognition. As word reading grows more accurate and automatic, learners can give more attention to meaning. Scarborough’s model brings word recognition and language comprehension together in skilled reading (Scarborough, 2001). Check what learners can currently do in both areas.

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Fluency as a Bridge from Decoding to Comprehension

Fluent readers read with speed, accuracy and expression. This helps them move from decoding to meaning. When sounding out takes too much effort, readers have less attention left for meaning. Readers who read fluently can focus cognitive resources on comprehension.

Fluency is developed through repeated reading practice. A Year 2 teacher might choose a short text the learner can nearly read alone. The teacher first checks that the text fits the sound-letter links this learner has been taught.

The learner reads the text aloud several times over consecutive days. Listen for words that still cause difficulty and model them. The next reading may be smoother, but do not assume a fixed number of repetitions makes every learner fluent.

A teacher can model a short passage aloud, then invite the learner to read it with support and alone. An audio version can model expression while the learner follows the text. Check whether the learner is actually reading the words rather than only listening.

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Key Approaches to Teaching Writing

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Talk for Writing

Pie Corbett developed Talk for Writing. Learners speak and shape ideas before they write. The principle: learners should talk through ideas before writing them down.

The cycle:

1. Immersion: Learners encounter high-quality mentor texts, examples of the genre they'll write in. A Year 2 class studying story-writing reads several fairy tales aloud. Teacher asks: "What patterns do you notice? How do stories start?" Learners notice patterns: mysterious settings, challenges, resolutions.

2. Imitation: Learners talk through their own version before writing. "Let's tell a story together. We'll start like the fairy tales: 'Once upon a time, in a dark forest...' What happens next?" Learners speak ideas aloud.

Teacher scribes, making thinking visible. Learners hear how sentences sound before writing them.

3. Independent composition: Learners write their own version. They draw on the patterns they heard and practised. The rehearsal gives them a sentence to begin with; check what support they still need as they write.

A classroom example (Year 1, writing reports about animals): Teacher reads a model report: "The rabbit is small. It has long ears. Rabbits eat vegetables." Teacher then leads oral composition: "Let's write about hedgehogs. Hedgehogs are... (class suggests: spiky). They have... (class suggests: short legs). Hedgehogs eat... (class suggests: insects)." Teacher scribes on the board.

Class reads it back. Then learners write their own animal report using the structure they've heard modelled and practised orally.

Why rehearse aloud? Writing asks learners to plan ideas, spell and check punctuation together. Oral rehearsal lets the teacher hear an idea before the learner writes it. The teacher can model a clearer sentence, then ask the learner to try again. This is a practical scaffold; the example alone is not proof of an impact on fluency or confidence. See the wider cognitive load guide for planning support.

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The Writing Revolution (WR)

Hochman and Wexler (2017) suggest "The Writing Revolution" teaches writing with sentence combining. Learners study grammar within the writing itself.

The core principle: Writers develop by studying and practising well-formed sentences. Learners study sentences from published texts. They spot patterns, then use them in their own writing.

Saddler (2005) describes sentence combining as practice in sentence construction. Graham and Perin (2007) found that teaching sentence combining can improve adolescent writing quality. Give learners two related sentences and ask them to combine them without losing meaning.

• Simple: "The boy walked to school. It was raining. He was late."
• Combined: "The boy walked to school in the rain, though he was late."

Sentence combining gives learners a way to practise sentence construction. Ask them what changed in the combined sentence, then invite them to try a new one. Review whether their revision keeps the intended meaning.

Grammar in context: Rather than teaching grammar in isolation ("Circle the adjectives"), WR teaches grammar as it appears in writing. A teacher might show a published sentence: "The angry mob surged through the streets." Teacher asks: "Which word tells us about the mob? (angry) How does this word change the sentence? What if we wrote 'The mob surged through the streets'?" Learners notice how adjectives intensify meaning.

Application in writing: After studying sentence patterns, learners apply them in their own writing with feedback. A learner who writes "The king was rich" might be shown a mentor sentence: "The king, draped in silk and diamonds, ruled an empire." Teacher asks: "How could you make your sentence more vivid?" Learner revises: "The rich king, surrounded by treasures, ruled the kingdom." This connects sentence study to authentic writing.

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Genre-Based Approaches

Learners write differently depending on purpose and audience. A personal recount differs from an instruction text, which differs from a formal complaint. Genre-based instruction teaches learners the conventions and structure of different text types.

A Year 4 example (writing instructions for making a sandwich): Teacher begins with a mentor text (published instructions for a simple recipe). Class identifies features:

• A clear goal ("How to make a jam sandwich")
• Numbered steps in order
• Imperative verbs ("Spread," "Cut," "Place")
• Time connectives ("First," "Next," "Finally")
• Clear vocabulary (no vague words like "do" or "put")

Learners then write instructions for their own process (making a cup of tea, building a block tower, playing a game). Teacher focuses feedback on genre features: "You've numbered your steps, good. Can you change 'put the butter on' to an imperative verb?" Learners revise to: "Spread the butter thinly."

Try a second task. Once learners can name the parts of an instruction text, ask them to use the pattern for a different process. Check whether they still order steps clearly and choose precise verbs.

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England’s 2025 Writing Framework for primary schools

The Department for Education writing framework summary (Department for Education, 2025) is guidance for primary schools in England. It calls for sequenced teaching of handwriting, spelling and sentence construction. It also supports oral composition and says the quality of early writing matters more than its length.

In a primary writing lesson, check whether learners can form and spell the words they need for one clear sentence. Rehearse a sentence aloud when useful, model a specific step, then give learners a short chance to write independently. Use what they produce to choose the next teaching move.

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Literacy Across the Curriculum (Disciplinary Literacy)

Subject-specific literacy is key by secondary school. Learners read texts differently across subjects (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008). Learners write differently for maths proofs versus history arguments (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008).

Fang (2006) analyses how science texts use technical words and distinctive sentence structures. Shanahan and Shanahan (2008) describe how subject experts read disciplinary texts. As a classroom move, ask learners to define a key term, trace a cause-and-effect sentence and explain what a diagram adds. Moje (2008) argues that subject teaching should give learners access to the ways each discipline reads and uses evidence.

Learners need inference skills with history texts. Roundhead and Cavalier accounts of the English Civil War differ. Teachers should help learners spot bias and check sources (Wineburg, 1991). Lee and Ashby (2000) studied how learners’ ideas about historical evidence and accounts develop. Ask learners to say which detail in each account supports their reading.

Learners must write maths precisely. "The answer is bigger" differs from "The product triples." Schleppegrell (2007) reviews the language demands of mathematics teaching. Pimm (1987) examines classroom mathematical communication.

Ask learners to define terms, use notation and explain each step. Compare two explanations and mark where the notation changes the meaning.

Subject teachers should teach writing in their subject. History teachers can teach argument construction, while science teachers show how to report findings. Show learners how a claim or report is built in your subject, then let them try it with feedback. Shanahan and Shanahan (2012) explain why such reading and writing practices differ across disciplines. This is a teaching example, not a measured result from that paper.

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The Department for Education reading framework 2023: What It Means for Schools

The Department for Education reading framework (2023) gives guidance for schools in England from Reception to Year 9. For early reading, it emphasises these linked practices:

1. Match new teaching to prior knowledge. Before a lesson, list the sound-letter links learners have already met. Choose a small number of new examples from the programme. During reading, listen for who can blend independently and who needs another model. The framework describes this as part of wider reading teaching in England.

2. Early spelling practice: The framework says children can compose sentences aloud before writing them. As they learn sound-letter links, they can write sentences using what they know. Some early spellings may be plausible but incorrect. Teachers should encourage correct spelling as children learn more of the alphabetic code (Department for Education, 2023).

3. Keep talk and stories alongside phonics: The framework gives oral language, stories and reading for pleasure their own place. Plan regular phonics teaching and give learners time to discuss and hear rich texts. Use the school’s programme to plan lesson length and change pace when the class needs another example.

4. Match independent decoding practice: Give beginners books or passages they can decode using sound-letter links they have been taught. Also read engaging, more complex books aloud and discuss them. A child need not decode every word in a favourite story to enjoy its language and ideas. As word-reading knowledge grows, widen the books learners read independently.

Early checks can show who needs help hearing rhyme and first sounds. They can also show who needs help linking sounds to letters. The Department for Education reading framework (Department for Education, 2023) calls for early, planned teaching and extra practice when learners need it.

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Support for Dyslexia, English as an Additional Language, and Speech Needs

When a learner struggles to use taught sound-letter links or to read words fluently, check the specific difficulty. Teach the next step explicitly and review progress. The Department for Education reading framework (2023) recommends timely extra support aligned with the school’s phonics programme. Use observed need and specialist advice to plan support; do not infer it from a diagnostic label alone.

Learners who use English as an additional language bring knowledge and literacy from other languages. Cummins (1979) offers a theory of how language skills can support learning across languages; it does not prove transfer for every learner. Ask what the learner can already read and write, then teach the English sound-letter links and classroom language they need. Gibbons (2009) describes ways to scaffold academic language in lessons.

A learner with speech, language or reading needs may need a closer look at how they hear, say, read and spell sounds. Stackhouse and Wells (1997) offer a framework for that assessment. Anthony et al. (2003) studied how phonological sensitivity develops. Share classroom observations with the school’s specialist team and plan support around the individual learner. Keep speech and reading observations distinct when deciding what help to offer.

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Assessment of Literacy in Primary and Secondary

Primary assessment:

• Phonological awareness screening: In Reception, use observation and suitable tasks to notice who needs help hearing syllables, rhyme or first sounds. Follow the school’s assessment approach. One task alone does not diagnose a reading difficulty.
• Phonics check: In England, the statutory Year 1 phonics screening check asks learners to read 40 real and pseudo-words. It helps schools identify who needs more support with decoding. Use classroom reading too, as one check cannot show every aspect of literacy.
• Reading observations: Listen to a learner read a text matched to what has been taught. Note words they read accurately, words they find hard and what they can explain afterwards. Use those notes to decide what to check next. An observation alone does not diagnose the cause of a reading difficulty.
• Miscue analysis: A single misread word does not diagnose its cause. Note which grapheme the learner looked at, ask them to try the word again and check several examples. A pattern of errors can show which sound-letter link to revisit. Avoid asking learners to guess a word from its first letter or a picture.
• Writing samples: Keep short examples of a learner’s writing across tasks. A Year 2 sample may show how the learner spells a taught word, joins ideas or orders a report. Compare later samples and ask the learner about choices before deciding what they understand. One piece of writing is a clue, not a full assessment.

Secondary assessment:

• SATs: Key Stage 2 SATs test reading comprehension (understanding published texts) and spelling/grammar. They help schools see who may need more support on entry to secondary school.
• GCSE English Language: GCSE English Language assesses reading and writing, but paper structure and marks vary by awarding organisation. Check the specification your school uses. Classroom tasks can reveal whether learners can explain a text, support an interpretation and write for a clear audience.
• Formative assessment in secondary: Use classroom tasks to check reading and writing often. Can learners explain a text's main ideas? Is their writing clear and accurate? Formal exams alone cannot answer these questions.

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Challenges in Literacy Teaching

Skills without a text: Give learners words and a short text that use the sound-letter links they have been taught. Ask them to read the words, then discuss what the text means. The Department for Education reading framework (Department for Education, 2023) recommends practice with decodable texts matched to the phonics taught so far.

Correcting every error in a first draft: When learners draft, help them focus on their ideas. Give feedback on a specific part of the writing, then teach spelling and editing skills as the draft develops (Graham et al., 2012).

Writing with no clear purpose: Give learners regular chances to plan, draft and revise writing tied to the knowledge they are learning. The Graham et al. (2012) primary-writing guide recommends daily time to write for elementary learners, including instruction and practice. It rates the evidence for that timing recommendation as minimal. For secondary subjects, choose a frequency and form that fit the curriculum rather than applying a fixed daily rule to every class.

Limited access to books: Check whether every learner can borrow books they want to read as well as texts suited to current word-reading practice. Keep a varied classroom or school library, invite requests and make borrowing straightforward. Ask learners which books they can use before assuming what is available at home.

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Key Takeaways for Your Literacy Teaching

1. Prioritise phonics in primary: Teach early word reading systematically in England, following the school’s SSP programme. Check which sound-letter links learners can use and give extra practice where needed. Set the timing to the programme and the class, rather than a fixed number of minutes.
2. Build oral language simultaneously: Decoding alone doesn't make readers. Teach listening, speaking, and vocabulary explicitly alongside phonics. Stories, conversations, and explicit vocabulary teaching are not add-ons, they're core literacy instruction.
3. Model comprehension strategies: Show how you question or summarise a short passage, then guide learners to try it. The Shanahan et al. (2010) guide supports explicit comprehension instruction for younger readers.
4. Use mentor texts as models for writing: Before learners write, immerse them in high-quality examples. Use Talk for Writing to rehearse ideas orally. Combine modelling and oral rehearsal with purposeful independent writing and focused feedback. Check whether learners can use the pattern in a new task.
5. Use several sources of evidence: A test, a reading observation, a writing sample and a conversation each show part of the picture. Compare them before choosing the next teaching step. Seek specialist assessment when a concern persists.

Next lesson, give learners a short passage. Ask them to explain how one word or sentence shapes meaning before they write a response.

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Frequently asked questions

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How do decoding and language comprehension work together?

The Simple View says both skills support reading comprehension. A learner may read words accurately but still need help with vocabulary or background knowledge (Gough & Tunmer, 1986).

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What should teachers teach alongside phonics?

Teach phonics directly, then match reading practice to what learners have been taught. Build fluency, vocabulary, oral language and comprehension as connected strands.

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How can subject teachers support literacy?

Model how to read and write in your subject. In history, ask learners to check a source and support a claim. In maths, ask them to explain their steps with precise terms.

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Further Reading: Key Research Papers on Literacy Pedagogy

Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10.
The foundational paper introducing the Simple View of Reading: the framework that reading comprehension depends on both decoding and language comprehension.

Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C., & Torgesen, J. (2010). Improving Reading Comprehension in Kindergarten Through 3rd Grade. What Works Clearinghouse, Institute of Education Sciences. The guide makes five recommendations for teaching reading comprehension to young readers.

Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40–59. This study compares how subject experts read disciplinary texts and how teachers can teach those approaches.

Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2012). What is disciplinary literacy and why does it matter? Topics in Language Disorders, 32(1), 7–18. The paper explains why reading and writing practices differ across subjects.

National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH publication 00-4754. This US review examines phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and text comprehension. It is research context, not England curriculum policy.

Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (Vol. 1, pp. 97–110). Guilford Press. The chapter presents a model of word recognition and language comprehension. The publisher link opens the containing book’s contents, not the chapter text.

Hochman, J. C., & Wexler, N. (2017). The Writing Revolution: A guide to advancing thinking through writing in all subjects and grades. Jossey-Bass. A practical method for teaching sentence construction and writing in subject lessons. The linked publisher excerpt describes the approach; this entry makes no independent impact claim.

Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining: A sentence-level writing intervention. The Reading Teacher, 58(5), 468–471. Describes how sentence combining can teach sentence construction in a writing workshop.

Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high schools. Carnegie Corporation of New York. This research synthesis includes sentence combining among its recommended writing approaches.

Graham, S., Bollinger, A., Booth Olson, C., D’Aoust, C., MacArthur, C., McCutchen, D., & Olinghouse, N. (2012). Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers. What Works Clearinghouse practice guide. It advises teachers to emphasise meaning in early drafts and focus feedback on specific elements.

Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early reading: Final report. Department for Education and Skills. The independent review recommended systematic phonics as the prime approach to early decoding and spelling in England. It also puts speaking and listening alongside phonics.

Department for Education (2023). The reading framework. Guidance on talk, stories, systematic synthetic phonics, fluency and reading comprehension from Reception to Year 9.

Department for Education (2025). The writing framework. Guidance for primary schools in England on sequenced handwriting, spelling, sentence construction, oral composition and writing practice.

Lee, P., & Ashby, R. (2000). Progression in historical understanding among students ages 7–14. In P. N. Stearns, P. Seixas, & S. Wineburg (Eds.), Knowing, teaching, and learning history: National and international perspectives (pp. 199–222). NYU Press. The chapter examines learners’ developing ideas about historical accounts and evidence.

Fang, Z. (2006). The language demands of science reading in middle school. International Journal of Science Education, 28(5), 491–520. Analyses language features of science texts.

Moje, E. B. (2008). Foregrounding the disciplines in secondary literacy teaching and learning: A call for change. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 52(2), 96–107. An argument for disciplinary literacy, not an intervention trial.

Wineburg, S. S. (1991). Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 73–87. Compares expert and novice use of historical sources.

Schleppegrell, M. J. (2007). The linguistic challenges of mathematics teaching and learning: A research review. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 23(2), 139–159. Reviews the language demands of mathematics.

Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222–251. Sets out a theory of cross-language interdependence.

Gibbons, P. (2009). English learners, academic literacy, and thinking: Learning in the challenge zone. Heinemann. Describes classroom scaffolds for academic language.

Stackhouse, J., & Wells, B. (1997). Children’s speech and literacy difficulties: Book 1, a psycholinguistic framework. Whurr. A framework for assessing speech and literacy needs.

Anthony, J. L., Lonigan, C. J., Driscoll, K., Phillips, B. M., & Burgess, S. R. (2003). Phonological sensitivity: A quasi-parallel progression of word structure units and cognitive operations. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(4), 470–487. Studies the development of phonological sensitivity.

Pimm, D. (1987). Speaking mathematically: Communication in mathematics classrooms. Routledge. Examines mathematical language in classrooms.

Education Endowment Foundation (2020). Improving literacy in Key Stage 1. Evidence-informed guidance on language, reading and writing. Its recommendations are not a guarantee of impact in every classroom.

Use a mentor sentence from the reading. Ask learners to notice how its word order affects meaning, then build a parallel sentence for a subject text.