Learning to Learn Strategies: Metacognition in the Lesson

Learning to learn strategies are the routines a learner uses to plan a task, check how it is going and decide what to change next time. They are not a separate subject. They are taught inside ordinary lessons, in the middle of real content, by a teacher who shows the thinking out loud and then hands it over. Learning to learn is the broader competence; metacognition, knowing and steering your own thinking, is the engine that drives it.

In a Year 5 literacy lesson the teacher opens a persuasive letter task by saying, "Before I write, I am going to list my three strongest points and pick the order." Learners copy the move: each writes three points, numbers them, then starts. Ten minutes in, the teacher stops the room and asks every learner to tick whether their first paragraph matches point one. Those who cannot tick go back and fix it. That short pause is where the gain sits: explicit teaching of planning and monitoring inside the subject adds about seven months' progress on average, and the effect is largest when the strategy is tied to the content in front of the class (EEF, 2018).

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What is learning to learn?

'Learning how to learn' is the talent to seek and persist in learning. It shows the ability to organise knowledge, by way of effective time and information management, both at personal and group levels. As the amount of information available to us increases, the ability to understand how our memory works has become more important than ever. Ideas such as a memory palace have been around for awhile and organisations such as the EEF are providing more insights than ever into the domains of metacognition.

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We believe that any learner in school has the capacity to develop and use insights into the mind to improve how they approach learning. Whether you are working with a child in a primary school or learners in University, there are key principles that will enable us all to advance learning outcomes.

Learning capability is not a fixed trait, but rather a skill that can be developed and improved over time. By understanding how we learn and applying effective learning strategies, we can enhance our ability to acquire and retain new information. This includes techniques such as spaced repetition, active recall, and chunking.

A growth mindset also helps. When we take on challenges, we get past obstacles and keep going with our learning. With the right mindset and the right tools, anyone can get better at learning and reach their goals.

A diligent learner might know how he she can learn best and how to direct learning. A diligent learner might also guide his/her way through the wide variety of available options in school and beyond.

The process of learning is central to our existence. We eat food to feed our bodies, and we seek knowledge and keep learning to feed our minds. This guide sets out to show that learning is indeed learnable.

Children can learn how to chunk information into semantic categories, which are groups based on meaning, and this improves memory. There are also exercises that help learners switch modes of thinking. The bottom line is that intelligence is not fixed. If we want to challenge some of the myths about attainment, we must first look more closely at how the mind works.

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Learning to learn strategies: plan, monitor, evaluate

Every learning to learn strategy sits inside one cycle: plan how to tackle the task, monitor how it is going, then evaluate what worked. The EEF guidance report makes this cycle the spine of metacognitive teaching, and each of the principles below is a way of making one stage of it visible in a lesson (EEF, 2018).

Metacognitive skills help learners organise what they know and manage their time well. Memory techniques, such as memory palaces, do work. Spaced repetition and active recall are the core principles (Bjork & Bjork, 1992; Karpicke & Blunt, 2011).

A growth mindset matters too (Dweck, 2006). When learners understand how memory works and use these strategies, they learn more (Dunlosky et al., 2013).

Learners need to learn how to learn, especially when teachers are not their primary source. Sejnowski and Oakley note useful learning techniques. These help learners build skills and manage time (Oakley & Sejnowski, 2018).

1. Diffused and focussed mode: During the process of learning, sometimes we allow our mind to wander and sometimes we are focussed. Dr Barbara Oakley states that the diffused or unfocused time is just as important as the focussed one, as it allows our brain to learn new things. Therefore, we must meditate, have breaks, focus on other things, and give ourselves a sufficient amount of time in both learning modes. An effective learning session is to take regular breaks by applying the Pomodoro technique. In this technique, we work for 25 minutes, then take a break for 5 minutes. The lengths of work and break time can be adjusted depending upon what works best for the learner. But, the most important aspect is to take a regular break.
2. Chunking: Dr Barbara Oakley believes that what we want to learn should be broken into solid chunks of smaller concepts. Here, the main objective is to learn in mental chunks and all the mental chunks serve as notable puzzle pieces. For instance, to master a Social Sciences concept, we must also know how to break the concept into mental chunks and how does this concept fit into the larger picture. The first step of chunking is survey and priming, which involves scanning the syllabus or book to get an idea of the larger picture. The next step is to observe an example. The third step is to do it yourself. And, lastly, repeat the process in different contexts.
3. Illusions of Competence: Sometimes we feel as if we have "understood" a concept. For instance, during online courses, we may look at an answer and feel that we already know how to come to that solution. These are the most common illusions of learning. Underlining or highlighting the most important parts may also result in an illusion of learning. Instead of using these techniques, it is more beneficial to write brief notes summarising the key concepts in the lesson.
4. Recalling: Dr Barbara Oakley highlights Dr Karpicke's analysis about retrieval practice to furnish scientific support for spending a few minutes to recall or summarise the topic we are trying to learn. It is an effective way to transfer something from short-term learning into long-term memory. Also, deliberate practice of recalling concepts in the different physical surroundings can improve learning outcomes and help us understand the concept independent of any physical cues our mind may have.
5. Bite-Sized Testing: To avoid illusions of competence, it is suggested that we must use Bite-Sized Testing as mental tools to assess ourselves as we read new material. Mini-tests are amongst the most useful learning mechanisms that can be accomplished through recalling any concept. Even if we fail to pass this bite-sized testing, we must correct all the mistakes and solidify the learning.

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What learning to learn techniques work best?

The techniques with the strongest evidence are retrieval practice, spaced practice and self-explanation, and the weakest are rereading and highlighting (Dunlosky et al., 2013). Which one fits depends on the learning task and the time you have. Our guide to thinking strategies sets them out in detail.

In the last few years, researchers have given us insights about learning that we did not have 20 years ago. This knowledge has let schools and colleges develop valuable learning techniques that help a learner 'think for themselves'. The Internet is full of courses that claim to improve our memory.

To become a lifelong learner, all we have to do is adopt a few simple ideas that can be transformational for our thinking. At Structural Learning, we develop mental tools that are built on insights on education. An education professional is bombarded with new information every day and it's not always easy to keep up with the latest concepts. Our passionate community of readers and contributors are continually adding to our tool box of resources and ideas.

Articles to read and concepts to try:

• Oracy: this is the idea that we can learn to talk and learn through talk. Language helps explore different kinds of thinking that we might not otherwise engage in.
• Graphic organisers: these simple tools enable children to chunk information into organise packets of knowledge. The chunk or 'schema' forms the basis of our understanding.
• Universal Thinking Framework: concepts such as blooms taxonomy and solo taxonomy help educators think about the level of learning. This new classroom instructional tool enables teachers to plan for a deeper level of learning.
• Mind maps: Learning efficiency is based upon how well we utilise our available cognitive equipment. Mapping out our ideas into an organised chunk is a great way for developing conceptual understanding.
• Learning Journals: Spending time in college documenting tasks, schedules and new ideas is time well spent.

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How to teach learning to learn inside a lesson, not as a separate course

Teach the strategy at the point in the lesson where learners need it, using the content they are already working on. A stand-alone study skills course gives learners a vocabulary; a strategy modelled inside a maths problem or a history source gives them a habit. The move is always the same: show your own thinking, give learners a short check to run themselves, then ask them to judge the result.

In a Year 3 maths lesson on column addition the teacher works one example on the board while thinking aloud: "I line up the units first, then I check whether I need to carry." Learners then attempt three questions with a two-item check card on the desk: units lined up, carry recorded. Halfway through, the teacher pauses the room and every learner ticks or corrects each item. At the end each learner says one thing they would change on the next question.

In a Year 10 history lesson the teacher opens with a five-question retrieval starter on the causes of the First World War, answered from memory before books open. At ten minutes the teacher stops the source analysis and asks pairs to say whether their notes answer the question set or merely describe the source. The exit ticket asks for the answer and the name of the strategy used to get there. This is where the evidence sits: Higgins and the EEF find that gains from metacognitive teaching are largest when the strategy is taught inside the subject rather than as a separate course (EEF, 2018).

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How can learners adopt effective learning to learn strategies?

Learners benefit from using a few proven techniques well. Chunking information (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) and recall helps learning. Focus on one strategy, practise it, and add more as habits form (Brown et al., 2014). Learners should reflect on what works best to personalise learning (Bjork & Bjork, 1992).

Like any new idea implemented in a school, it is best to drip feed new ideas and techniques into an educational environment. Providing too much too soon can be problematic for teachers and learners alike. The following strategies are evidence based techniques that might prove a good starting point.

1. Over-Learning: This means we must not spend extra time learning the same material in one sitting. To overcome the challenges of overlearning it is suggested to spread out the learning in different modes and many sessions. It is better to learn a new concept for 30 to 60 minutes each day and gradually increase the depth of learning and skill levels. This spaced repetition of concepts will not only lead to successful learning but would also shift the learning to our long-term memory.
2. Interleaving: After gaining basic knowledge of the concepts, interleaving can help in mastering the concepts. By practising problems using different practical techniques, we may solidify our knowledge of the concepts and we may learn how to apply these in different situations. Knowing how to use a particular concept is an active process, which is as important as knowing when to use it in a learning experience.
3. Process over Product: Each learner has a unique learning style. When experiencing procrastination, it is suggested to consider process over product. Sometimes we feel overwhelmed, in those times we procrastinate. When we are facing a delay in the entire learner experience, we must try and  begin to enjoy the learning process. Dr Oakley's insights about education suggest that it is better to enjoy the process of learning and the time in college rather than feeling the pressure of improving learning efficiency or learning the concept.
4. Analogies & Metaphors: These can lead to insights about education and adult learning experiences. Metaphors and analogies are frequently used by teachers and education professional mentors as they communicate in everyday life. Metaphors and analogies serve as a translational tool in the learning process, that may have a strong impact on a learner's understanding of a new or complex concept. Analogies and metaphors are used as long term memory techniques for pointing towards the similarities between our previous knowledge and what we are still trying to learn.
5. Teamwork/ Study Groups: A group study session is considered an effective way to uphold continued progress in difficult subjects. Finding the perfect group is key to learning about challenging subjects. Whatever and wherever we are learning, it is always better to learn with fellow learners in a group. The entire learner experience of 'proper learning' with different people can shift the knowledge to long term memory systems and makes the learning process more memorable.

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How can schools develop a learning to learn culture?

Metacognitive training for teachers builds a positive school culture. Use these strategies across subjects and year groups. Learners should think about how they learn. The shortest route is one shared routine, such as a two-minute retrieval starter in every lesson, so learners meet the same technique in every subject.

They can share strategies and celebrate growth. Learning journals and peer mentoring help here. Give learners time to talk about the techniques they use (Flavell, 1979; Hattie, 2012; Dweck, 2006).

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Learning gets learners ready for the tasks that matter in life. Every modern organisation needs people who can learn well (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1993). So the benefits reach well beyond the classroom.

Learning-styles theory (VAK or VARK) has been tested and found wanting (Pashler et al., 2008).

Though learning styles theory (e.g. VAK/VARK) has been widely debunked by research (Pashler et al., 2008; Kirschner, 2017), providing varied instructional approaches can still benefit all learners.

Learners should try different learning methods, finding what suits them best. This helps make learning more efficient and enjoyable for the individual (Bjork & Bjork, 1992; Dunlosky et al., 2013).

To help learners remember as much as possible, build repetition and practice into lessons. Flashcards and quizzes are two simple ways to do this. They go over key ideas again and help fix them in the learner's mind.

A supportive classroom helps memory. When learners feel at ease, they keep more of what they learn and put it to good use. Teachers can use these methods to help learners keep on learning.

Dr Barb Oakley and Dr Terrence Sejnowski are experts in the art and science of learning. If you want to find out more, their key ideas on education and learning strategies are available as mobile apps in Chinese, Portuguese and Spanish versions. You can also hear their thoughts on learning in the many podcasts they appear in.

Study skills, or learning to learn skills, give children a real boost. They teach them 'how to learn' and how to do well in school. Metacognitive skills play a key part in building the critical thinking skills a learner needs for lifelong learning and academic success.

This is not another quick fix, and it does need a clear vision. We are sure you will soon see the benefits. Teachers should also help learners notice metacognitive experiences. These are the real-time feelings of difficulty or confidence during a task, and they guide whether to keep going with a strategy or switch to another.

What resources help teachers implement learning to learn strategies?

Start with the EEF's research on metacognition. Books on memory techniques and the science of learning are also worth reading. Guides to growth mindset help teachers too (Dweck, 2006). The three below are free, evidence-based and written for teachers rather than researchers.

Look for materials that mix theory with things you can do in class. Courses on teaching metacognition offer hands-on training (e.g. Quigley et al., 2018).

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Research shows using deliberate practice helps learners. Spaced repetition also helps learners remember facts (Ericsson et al., 1993; Karpicke, 2016). Teaching good study skills supports learner independence and boosts grades (Bjork & Bjork, 1992; Dunlosky et al., 2013).

1. Choffin, B., Popineau, F., Bourda, Y., & Vie, J. (2019). DAS3H: Modeling Student Learning and Forgetting for Optimally Scheduling Distributed Practice of Skills. arXiv.

The DAS3H model (Choffin et al., 2019) improves how spaced repetition is timed. It takes into account how memory fades and which skills each task involves. Learning that is tailored to each learner helps them remember more.

Spaced repetition helps learners hold on to complex skills for longer. Deliberate practice also helps when memory is weak (Ericsson et al., 1993).

2. Feng, K., Zhao, X., Liu, J., Cai, Y., Ye, Z., Chen, C., & Xue, G. (2019). Spaced Learning Enhances Episodic Memory by Increasing Neural Pattern Similarity Across Repetitions. The Journal of Neuroscience, 39, 5351-5360.

Feng et al. (2019) studied the spacing effect's brain science. They found spaced learning boosted brain pattern similarity. Episodic memory also improved, backing the study-phase retrieval idea. Spaced repetition is key for better study and memory, the research suggests.

3. Lambers and Tauber (2020) explored spaced repetition for surgical training. Their research in the Journal of Surgical Education studied learners preparing for exams. They found it a useful learning tool.

The researchers examined spaced repetition with Anki for orthopaedic learners. The findings display a clear link between spaced practice and exam results. Spaced repetition improved study skills and knowledge retention. It worked well in demanding professional contexts.

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4. Greene, R. (2008). Repetition and Spacing Effects. In H. L. Roediger III (Ed.), Learning and Memory: A Comprehensive Reference (Vol. 2, pp. 65-78).

Greene (2008) shows that repetition affects how well we learn. Spacing out practice improves memory more than cramming it all at once. This suggests that spaced repetition and regular practice support long-term learning. Ebbinghaus (1885) backs this way of tackling memory problems.

Lehtinen et al. (2017) discussed improving maths skills. They looked at moving from rote learning to focused practice. The study appeared in ZDM, volume 49, pages 625-636.

Metacognition research in maths helps teachers. It provides practical classroom strategies (Flavell, 1979). These strategies support learners' thinking skills (Dunlosky et al., 2013). They can improve outcomes for all learners (Hattie, 2009).

The study examines deliberate practice for maths skills (Ericsson et al., 1993). It contrasts drill with reflective activities to boost learning. Deliberate practice with spaced repetition improves understanding (Rohrer, 2009; Dunlosky et al., 2013). This helps learners' maths skills, say researchers (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2006).

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References

Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives.

Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms.

Karpicke, J. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning.

Kirschner, P. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work.

Roediger, H. R. (2006). Test-enhanced learning.

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Limitations and Critiques

The most direct criticism of learning to learn as a school aim is that it can be taught as a set of general habits divorced from any subject. The EEF guidance argues the opposite: metacognitive knowledge is largely domain-specific, and a strategy modelled in maths does not transfer to history without being taught again there (EEF, 2018). Dignath and Büttner (2008) found in their meta-analysis that self-regulation programmes embedded in subject content outperformed general study skills courses. A course called "learning to learn" on the timetable is therefore the weakest version of the idea.

The evidence base has a methods problem. Much of the retrieval and spacing research on which this guide draws was run with undergraduates in laboratories, and Dunlosky et al. (2013) themselves rated several popular techniques as low utility partly because classroom trials were thin. Metacognition is also hard to measure: Veenman, Van Hout-Wolters and Afflerbach (2006) showed that self-report questionnaires correlate poorly with what learners actually do during a task, so studies that rely on them may overstate effects.

Two popular companions to this topic have not survived scrutiny. Learning styles instruction has no supporting evidence (Pashler et al., 2008), and Macnamara and Burgoyne (2023) found that growth mindset interventions have negligible effects on achievement once study quality is accounted for. Kirschner, Sweller and Clark (2006) add a further caution: asking novices to manage their own learning with minimal guidance overloads working memory rather than building independence.

Most trials are drawn from North American and European schools, so claims about universal effects should be read with care. Even so, the core practice of teaching learners to plan, monitor and evaluate inside subject content remains one of the best-supported, lowest-cost approaches available to a classroom teacher.

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Frequently Asked Questions

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What exactly is 'learning to learn' and why is it important for learners?

Learners need strategies that work. Managing their time and the information they take in helps (Bjork et al., 2013). Metacognition helps learners understand how their own memory works (Flavell, 1979).

Active recall and spaced repetition are two strategies that work well (Dunlosky et al., 2013). These skills help learners work on their own, and that matters long after they leave school.