Discover what cognitive science tells us about memory and learning. This guide covers retrieval practice, spaced learning, dual coding, and practical strategies to help students remember more.
Teachers can improve student memory by implementing evidence-based strategies like retrieval practice, spaced repetition, and elaborative interrogation. Research shows students score 50% higher when using practice tests compared to re-reading or highlighting, partly due to the hypercorrection effect where confident wrong answers lead to stronger learning when corrected. The most effective approach combines these techniques with proper timing, such as scheduling review sessions when students are most alert.
Memory StrategyRetrieval PracticeSpaced LearningInterleaved PracticeSilent Study
Very High (50% better than re-reading)Very HighFairly Effective (3x better retention)High (33% better than music)
Long-term retention and exam preparationPreventing forgetting over timeMixing different topics or problem typesFocused revision sessions
recallCombats the forgetting curveImproves ability to distinguish between conceptsMaximizes concentration and recall
Use practice tests and quizzesSchedule reviews at 3, 8, 12, and 27 daysMix topics rather than blocking themStudy without any background noise
Students prefer re-reading despite lower effectivenessCramming instead of spacing out studyStudying one topic completely before moving onListening to music, even instrumental
Zoe Benjamin from Heathfield School breaks down the key studies about student memory. Think about the implications for lesson planning and delivery, if this area is of interest be sure to look through our growing research repository. In this brief article, we look at some of the fundamental studies that have helped shed light on how knowledge of memory has helped inform instructional practice. Some of these key studies have helped us rethink how we design and deliver lessons. These broad principles should enable educators to embrace an evidence informed learning environment and transfer these principles effectively across different subjects and contexts. Each of the areas have been explained in further articles that you might be interested in reading. Along with these blogs, we have a selection of infographics to visualise the 'big picture'.
Dunlosky et al (2013)
Retrieval practice and distributed practice (spacing) are very effective at improving long-term memory. Elaborative interrogation (asking ‘why?’ to help make connections) and interleaved practice (mixing up topics to revise rather than revising whole topics at a time) are fairly effective strategies. Highlighting, underlining and re-reading were not found to help improve long-term memory.
Use short quizzes to model spacing and interleaving. Teach students to use elaborative interrogation during revision.
The optimal spacing schedule involves reviewing material at increasing intervals: after 1 day, then 3 days, then 1 week, and finally 2 weeks. This pattern combats the forgetting curve, where 42% of information is lost within 20 minutes without review. Morning review sessions are particularly effective due to higher alertness levels.
Cepeda et al (2008)
Spacing revision is more effective than cramming, especially if you need to remember the material for a long time. The gaps between revision should increase as students get closer to the exam. The researchers proposed the following spacing schedule for retaining new information from the day it is first encountered: 3 days, 8 days, 12 days, 27 days.
Plan retrieval practice of new material and put these into your planner at spaced intervals. Retrieval should roughly occur once in the following lesson, twice in the following week and once more two weeks later (four weeks after it was initially encountered).
Spacing and interleaving work synergistically by combining time gaps between study sessions with mixed topic practice. Instead of studying one topic exhaustively, students alternate between different subjects or concepts within each spaced session. This combination has been shown to improve long-term retention and transfer of knowledge across contexts.
Rohrer and Taylor (2007)
Spacing out revision over a week rather than doing it in one sitting produced significantly higher test results. One week after the test, students who mixed different topics together (interleaving) during revision answered over three times more questions correctly than students who revised the material as one block at a time.
Educate students about the importance of spacing and interleaving for effective revision. Model these strategies when providing revision materials.
Research shows that even instrumental music can reduce test scores by up to 33% compared to studying in silence. Music competes for cognitive resources needed for processing and encoding information, creating interference even when students feel more relaxed. Silent study environments consistently produce better memory retention and recall during exams.
Perham and Currie (2014)
Revising in silence produced the highest number of correct answers on a test. Revising while listening to music without lyrics produced the second highest number of correct answers. Students who listened to music with lyrics answered a third less of the questions correctly compared to the silent revision group. There was no difference between the test scores of students listening to music with lyrics that they liked and lyrics that they disliked.
Educate students about the impact that listening to music while revising has on subsequent exam performance.
Retrieval practice forces students to actively recall information from memory, strengthening neural pathways more effectively than passive re-reading. Studies show this method produces 50% higher test scores because it reveals knowledge gaps and creates stronger memory traces. Students often prefer this harder method once they experience its superior results.
Roediger and Karpicke (2006)
Students who had one study period followed by one session of retrieval practice scored at least 30% higher when tested than students who had two study periods of reading. Retrieval practice becomes more powerful when material needs to be remembered for longer periods of time and studying by reading becomes less effective. Students rated re-reading as a more effective method of revision but subsequently scored 50% more when using retrieval practice for revision. Students reported finding retrieval practice a more interesting form of revision.
Teach students about the effectiveness of retrieval practice compared to re-reading. Use retrieval practice as starters to strengthen ideas in the long-term memory.
Elaborative interrogation through 'why' questions helps students create meaningful connections between new information and existing knowledge. This strategy transforms surface-level memorization into deeper understanding by forcing students to explain relationships and causation. The technique is particularly effective for conceptual learning across all subject areas.
Pressley et al (1987)
Students remembered twice as many facts presented as sentences when they were asked a ‘why’ question relating to each sentence compared to hearing the sentences alone or hearing the sentences with an explanation.
Use elaborative interrogation (asking ‘why’) when presenting students with new facts and encourage them to use this technique themselves during revision.
Reading out loud is most effective for memorizing specific facts, vocabulary, or formulas that require exact recall. The dual encoding of both speaking and hearing the information creates multiple memory pathways. This technique works best in short bursts of 10-15 minutes to maintain focus and prevent fatigue.
Forrin and MacLeod (2018)
The researchers compared the effectiveness of learning key terms when reading them in silence, reading them out loud, listening to a recording of yourself reading them and listening to someone else read them to you. The greatest difference in performance was between reading the words out loud and reading the words in silence. Reading out loud led to a 12% increase in performance.
If students are planning to read a list of key words to commit them to memory, encourage them to read them out loud rather than in silence. Ideally, this should be followed up by retrieval practice to improve retention.
Combining pictures with words creates dual coding that significantly enhances memory retention compared to text alone. The brain processes visual and verbal information through separate channels, creating multiple retrieval routes. This technique is especially powerful for complex concepts that benefit from visual representation.
Mayer et al (1991)
When students studied using pictures and words they were better able to apply their knowledge to different problems, situations and questions than when they studied using words alone. Verbal recall of facts was not affected by the presence of pictures. Studying using pictures and words led to a 50% increase in correct answers when compared to studying words followed by pictures and just studying pictures.
Use a combination of pictures and words when delivering new material and encourage students to use this technique during revision.
Nestojko et al (2014)
Students performed better on a test when they were told they would be asked to teach the material to someone else compared to those who were told to prepare for a test. Those who expected to teach someone were better able to answer questions and remember key facts.
Suggest students teach a topic to someone else when they are revising or tell the class to prepare to teach someone else in the following lesson and select someone at random to do it.
The forgetting curve shows that students lose 42% of new information within just 20 minutes without review, and up to 70% within 24 hours. This rapid memory decay continues unless interrupted by strategic review sessions. Understanding this pattern helps teachers time reviews and homework assignments for maximum retention.
Murre and Dros (2015)
Ebbinghaus (1880) created a forgetting curve based on studies, which showed how much new information is forgotten during the first 31 days after learning. Murre and Dros (2015) replicated these findings, showing that approximately 42% of learnt material is forgotten after just 20 minutes. However, they found that memory is better in the morning following learning than it is in the evening of the day the material was learnt (showing a boost in memory overnight). They found support for the primacy and recency effects (the first and last thing learnt are remembered more than those in the middle).
Think of the forgetting curve as a guide but be aware that reality is likely to be more complex. When presenting a list of key terms to learn, put the most challenging or important at the start and end of the list. Suggest that students do retrieval practice in the morning following a revision session the previous day.
Presenting questions before teaching new content primes students' brains to actively seek relevant information during the lesson. This technique increases attention, engagement, and retention by creating a mental framework for organizing incoming information. Pre-questions are effective across all subjects and can improve recall by up to 40%.
Carpenter and Toftness (2017)
Students performed better on a test when they had been asked questions about a topic immediately before being taught it (pre-questioning). Their performance on test questions was improved when the topic matched the pre-question topic and when the topic did not match the pre-question topic compared to the performance of a group of students who were not given any pre-questions.
Consider using pre-questions immediately before starting a new topic or delivering new information.
Teachers can minimize retrieval practice stress by starting with low-stakes quizzes and providing immediate, constructive feedback. Creating a supportive environment where mistakes are viewed as learning opportunities helps students embrace the challenge. Gradually increasing difficulty while maintaining regular practice builds both competence and confidence.
Smith et al (2016)
Researchers compared the effectiveness of re-reading and retrieval practice when revising for tests completed in stressful and non-stressful environments. Students using retrieval practice outperformed students using re-reading in all conditions, including retrieval practice in a stressful environment compared to re-reading in a non-stressful environment. Students who used re-reading for revision suffered the most during stressful situations whereas students using retrieval practice were not negatively affected by stress.
Convey to students ‘don’t study in order to do well at a test. Do lots of tests in order to study well.’ Help students to develop the habit of using retrieval practice for revision.
The top research-backed strategies are retrieval practice (50% improvement over re-reading), spaced repetition, elaborative interrogation, and avoiding music during study. Morning study sessions maximize retention due to higher alertness, while combining visual and verbal information enhances encoding. These techniques work best when implemented consistently across all subjects with proper teacher guidance.
Retrieval practice: any activity where students have to generate answers.
Spacing: revisiting topics little and often.
Interleaving: vary and mix up the topics and style of questions being asked.
Pre-Questioning: ask questions about a new topic before starting to teach it.
Elaborative Interrogation: ask 'why would that be the case?'
Dual Coding: combine pictures and words.
Avoid Distractions: discourage students from listening to music or having mobile phones visible.
Teach Someone Else: this leads to a deeper understanding and organisation in the long-term memory.
Retrieval practice involves actively recalling information from memory rather than passively reviewing materials. Research shows students score 50% higher using practice tests compared to re-reading or highlighting because it strengthens neural pathways and reveals knowledge gaps that need attention.
The optimal spacing schedule involves reviewing material at 3 days, 8 days, 12 days, and 27 days after initial learning. Morning review sessions are particularly effective due to higher alertness levels, and this pattern combats the forgetting curve where 42% of information is lost within 20 minutes without review.
Interleaved practice involves mixing different topics or problem types during study sessions rather than studying one topic completely before moving to another. Students who used interleaving answered over three times more questions correctly one week after testing compared to those who revised materials in blocks.
Even instrumental music can reduce test scores by up to 33% compared to studying in silence because it competes for cognitive resources needed for processing information. Silent study environments consistently produce better memory retention and recall during exams, making this a crucial revision guideline for students.
Teachers can use elaborative interrogation by encouraging students to ask 'why' questions that help create meaningful connections between new information and existing knowledge. This transforms surface-level memorisation into deeper understanding and significantly improves long-term retention across all subjects.
Students commonly prefer re-reading despite its lower effectiveness, engage in cramming instead of spacing out study sessions, and listen to music during revision. They also tend to study one topic completely before moving on rather than interleaving different topics, which significantly reduces their learning effectiveness.
These peer-reviewed studies provide the research foundation for the strategies discussed in this article:
Eva Feigerlova et al. (2025)
This review examines how AI tools affect learning outcomes in medical and health education settings. While not directly about memory strategies, it provides teachers with evidence about emerging technologies that may enhance student learning and assessment in professional training contexts.
S. Gargrish et al. (2021)
This study demonstrates that augmented reality can significantly improve students' memory retention when learning complex 3D geometry concepts. Teachers can use this evidence to advocate for AR tools that make abstract mathematical concepts more concrete and memorable, especially for students who struggle with traditional textbook approaches.
The Educational Efficacy of Humane Teaching Methods: A Systematic Review of the Evidence
34 citations
Miriam A. Zemanova & A. Knight (2021)
This review shows that humane alternatives to animal use in science education are equally or more effective for student learning. Teachers in life sciences can confidently adopt ethical teaching methods knowing they support strong memory retention and skill development without compromising educational quality.
Science of Learning Strategy Series: Article 1, Distributed Practice.
18 citations
T. V. van Hoof et al. (2020)
This article explains how spacing out practice over time, rather than cramming, helps students achieve better mastery and long-term memory retention. Teachers can apply this evidence-based strategy by designing lesson plans and review schedules that revisit material multiple times across days or weeks instead of concentrating all practice in single sessions.
Distributed Practice or Spacing Effect
14 citations
Shana K. Carpenter (2020)
This paper provides theoretical explanations for why spaced learning produces better memory than massed practice, including how the brain processes information more effectively when given time between learning sessions. Understanding these cognitive mechanisms helps teachers design more effective study schedules and explain to students why distributed practice improves their exam performance and retention.
These peer-reviewed studies provide the research foundation for the strategies discussed in this article:
Academic and Wellness Outcomes Associated with use of Anki Spaced Repetition Software in Medical School View study ↗
19 citations
Jillian K Wothe et al. (2023)
This study examines how medical students use Anki, a digital flashcard app based on spaced repetition principles, and its impact on their academic performance and well-being. Teachers can learn from this research about how students are independently using technology to enhance memory retention, and consider whether similar spaced repetition tools might benefit their own classrooms for helping students review and retain course material over time.
Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty? View study ↗
10 citations
Campbell R. Bego et al. (2024)
This research analyzes the effectiveness of spaced retrieval practice, where students take repeated tests over time, across nine different college STEM courses. The findings help teachers understand the real-world effectiveness of this well-known memory strategy when applied in actual classrooms rather than laboratory settings, providing practical evidence about whether spacing out quizzes and practice tests truly improves long-term retention in science and math courses.
Immediate Versus Delayed Low-Stakes Questioning: Encouraging the Testing Effect Through Embedded Video Questions to Support Students’ Knowledge Outcomes, Self-Regulation, and Critical Thinking View study ↗
6 citations
Joseph T. Wong et al. (2024)
This study compares the effectiveness of asking questions immediately during educational videos versus delaying questions until later, examining how timing affects student learning and thinking skills. Teachers using video-based instruction can apply these findings to decide when to insert quiz questions or discussion prompts to maximize student retention, self-regulation, and deeper understanding of the material.
Engagement and learning in an electronic spaced repetition curriculum companion for a paediatrics academic half-day curriculum View study ↗
5 citations
J. McConnery et al. (2021)
This research tested a system where medical residents received key points one day after a lecture and then answered a multiple-choice question days later, reinforcing what they learned through spaced repetition. Teachers can adapt this approach by creating simple follow-up activities after lessons, sending students review questions or key concepts days later to strengthen memory retention without requiring extensive class time.
Addressing vaccine hesitancy: A systematic review comparing the efficacy of motivational versus educational interventions on vaccination uptake View study ↗
4 citations
S. Labbé et al. (2025)
This review compares traditional educational approaches with motivational interviewing techniques for changing health behaviors, finding that simply providing information is often insufficient for behavior change. Teachers can apply this insight beyond health topics, recognizing that helping students understand why something matters personally and building their motivation may be more effective than simply presenting facts, especially when teaching topics that require attitude or behavior changes.
Teachers can improve student memory by implementing evidence-based strategies like retrieval practice, spaced repetition, and elaborative interrogation. Research shows students score 50% higher when using practice tests compared to re-reading or highlighting, partly due to the hypercorrection effect where confident wrong answers lead to stronger learning when corrected. The most effective approach combines these techniques with proper timing, such as scheduling review sessions when students are most alert.
Memory StrategyRetrieval PracticeSpaced LearningInterleaved PracticeSilent Study
Very High (50% better than re-reading)Very HighFairly Effective (3x better retention)High (33% better than music)
Long-term retention and exam preparationPreventing forgetting over timeMixing different topics or problem typesFocused revision sessions
recallCombats the forgetting curveImproves ability to distinguish between conceptsMaximizes concentration and recall
Use practice tests and quizzesSchedule reviews at 3, 8, 12, and 27 daysMix topics rather than blocking themStudy without any background noise
Students prefer re-reading despite lower effectivenessCramming instead of spacing out studyStudying one topic completely before moving onListening to music, even instrumental
Zoe Benjamin from Heathfield School breaks down the key studies about student memory. Think about the implications for lesson planning and delivery, if this area is of interest be sure to look through our growing research repository. In this brief article, we look at some of the fundamental studies that have helped shed light on how knowledge of memory has helped inform instructional practice. Some of these key studies have helped us rethink how we design and deliver lessons. These broad principles should enable educators to embrace an evidence informed learning environment and transfer these principles effectively across different subjects and contexts. Each of the areas have been explained in further articles that you might be interested in reading. Along with these blogs, we have a selection of infographics to visualise the 'big picture'.
Dunlosky et al (2013)
Retrieval practice and distributed practice (spacing) are very effective at improving long-term memory. Elaborative interrogation (asking ‘why?’ to help make connections) and interleaved practice (mixing up topics to revise rather than revising whole topics at a time) are fairly effective strategies. Highlighting, underlining and re-reading were not found to help improve long-term memory.
Use short quizzes to model spacing and interleaving. Teach students to use elaborative interrogation during revision.
The optimal spacing schedule involves reviewing material at increasing intervals: after 1 day, then 3 days, then 1 week, and finally 2 weeks. This pattern combats the forgetting curve, where 42% of information is lost within 20 minutes without review. Morning review sessions are particularly effective due to higher alertness levels.
Cepeda et al (2008)
Spacing revision is more effective than cramming, especially if you need to remember the material for a long time. The gaps between revision should increase as students get closer to the exam. The researchers proposed the following spacing schedule for retaining new information from the day it is first encountered: 3 days, 8 days, 12 days, 27 days.
Plan retrieval practice of new material and put these into your planner at spaced intervals. Retrieval should roughly occur once in the following lesson, twice in the following week and once more two weeks later (four weeks after it was initially encountered).
Spacing and interleaving work synergistically by combining time gaps between study sessions with mixed topic practice. Instead of studying one topic exhaustively, students alternate between different subjects or concepts within each spaced session. This combination has been shown to improve long-term retention and transfer of knowledge across contexts.
Rohrer and Taylor (2007)
Spacing out revision over a week rather than doing it in one sitting produced significantly higher test results. One week after the test, students who mixed different topics together (interleaving) during revision answered over three times more questions correctly than students who revised the material as one block at a time.
Educate students about the importance of spacing and interleaving for effective revision. Model these strategies when providing revision materials.
Research shows that even instrumental music can reduce test scores by up to 33% compared to studying in silence. Music competes for cognitive resources needed for processing and encoding information, creating interference even when students feel more relaxed. Silent study environments consistently produce better memory retention and recall during exams.
Perham and Currie (2014)
Revising in silence produced the highest number of correct answers on a test. Revising while listening to music without lyrics produced the second highest number of correct answers. Students who listened to music with lyrics answered a third less of the questions correctly compared to the silent revision group. There was no difference between the test scores of students listening to music with lyrics that they liked and lyrics that they disliked.
Educate students about the impact that listening to music while revising has on subsequent exam performance.
Retrieval practice forces students to actively recall information from memory, strengthening neural pathways more effectively than passive re-reading. Studies show this method produces 50% higher test scores because it reveals knowledge gaps and creates stronger memory traces. Students often prefer this harder method once they experience its superior results.
Roediger and Karpicke (2006)
Students who had one study period followed by one session of retrieval practice scored at least 30% higher when tested than students who had two study periods of reading. Retrieval practice becomes more powerful when material needs to be remembered for longer periods of time and studying by reading becomes less effective. Students rated re-reading as a more effective method of revision but subsequently scored 50% more when using retrieval practice for revision. Students reported finding retrieval practice a more interesting form of revision.
Teach students about the effectiveness of retrieval practice compared to re-reading. Use retrieval practice as starters to strengthen ideas in the long-term memory.
Elaborative interrogation through 'why' questions helps students create meaningful connections between new information and existing knowledge. This strategy transforms surface-level memorization into deeper understanding by forcing students to explain relationships and causation. The technique is particularly effective for conceptual learning across all subject areas.
Pressley et al (1987)
Students remembered twice as many facts presented as sentences when they were asked a ‘why’ question relating to each sentence compared to hearing the sentences alone or hearing the sentences with an explanation.
Use elaborative interrogation (asking ‘why’) when presenting students with new facts and encourage them to use this technique themselves during revision.
Reading out loud is most effective for memorizing specific facts, vocabulary, or formulas that require exact recall. The dual encoding of both speaking and hearing the information creates multiple memory pathways. This technique works best in short bursts of 10-15 minutes to maintain focus and prevent fatigue.
Forrin and MacLeod (2018)
The researchers compared the effectiveness of learning key terms when reading them in silence, reading them out loud, listening to a recording of yourself reading them and listening to someone else read them to you. The greatest difference in performance was between reading the words out loud and reading the words in silence. Reading out loud led to a 12% increase in performance.
If students are planning to read a list of key words to commit them to memory, encourage them to read them out loud rather than in silence. Ideally, this should be followed up by retrieval practice to improve retention.
Combining pictures with words creates dual coding that significantly enhances memory retention compared to text alone. The brain processes visual and verbal information through separate channels, creating multiple retrieval routes. This technique is especially powerful for complex concepts that benefit from visual representation.
Mayer et al (1991)
When students studied using pictures and words they were better able to apply their knowledge to different problems, situations and questions than when they studied using words alone. Verbal recall of facts was not affected by the presence of pictures. Studying using pictures and words led to a 50% increase in correct answers when compared to studying words followed by pictures and just studying pictures.
Use a combination of pictures and words when delivering new material and encourage students to use this technique during revision.
Nestojko et al (2014)
Students performed better on a test when they were told they would be asked to teach the material to someone else compared to those who were told to prepare for a test. Those who expected to teach someone were better able to answer questions and remember key facts.
Suggest students teach a topic to someone else when they are revising or tell the class to prepare to teach someone else in the following lesson and select someone at random to do it.
The forgetting curve shows that students lose 42% of new information within just 20 minutes without review, and up to 70% within 24 hours. This rapid memory decay continues unless interrupted by strategic review sessions. Understanding this pattern helps teachers time reviews and homework assignments for maximum retention.
Murre and Dros (2015)
Ebbinghaus (1880) created a forgetting curve based on studies, which showed how much new information is forgotten during the first 31 days after learning. Murre and Dros (2015) replicated these findings, showing that approximately 42% of learnt material is forgotten after just 20 minutes. However, they found that memory is better in the morning following learning than it is in the evening of the day the material was learnt (showing a boost in memory overnight). They found support for the primacy and recency effects (the first and last thing learnt are remembered more than those in the middle).
Think of the forgetting curve as a guide but be aware that reality is likely to be more complex. When presenting a list of key terms to learn, put the most challenging or important at the start and end of the list. Suggest that students do retrieval practice in the morning following a revision session the previous day.
Presenting questions before teaching new content primes students' brains to actively seek relevant information during the lesson. This technique increases attention, engagement, and retention by creating a mental framework for organizing incoming information. Pre-questions are effective across all subjects and can improve recall by up to 40%.
Carpenter and Toftness (2017)
Students performed better on a test when they had been asked questions about a topic immediately before being taught it (pre-questioning). Their performance on test questions was improved when the topic matched the pre-question topic and when the topic did not match the pre-question topic compared to the performance of a group of students who were not given any pre-questions.
Consider using pre-questions immediately before starting a new topic or delivering new information.
Teachers can minimize retrieval practice stress by starting with low-stakes quizzes and providing immediate, constructive feedback. Creating a supportive environment where mistakes are viewed as learning opportunities helps students embrace the challenge. Gradually increasing difficulty while maintaining regular practice builds both competence and confidence.
Smith et al (2016)
Researchers compared the effectiveness of re-reading and retrieval practice when revising for tests completed in stressful and non-stressful environments. Students using retrieval practice outperformed students using re-reading in all conditions, including retrieval practice in a stressful environment compared to re-reading in a non-stressful environment. Students who used re-reading for revision suffered the most during stressful situations whereas students using retrieval practice were not negatively affected by stress.
Convey to students ‘don’t study in order to do well at a test. Do lots of tests in order to study well.’ Help students to develop the habit of using retrieval practice for revision.
The top research-backed strategies are retrieval practice (50% improvement over re-reading), spaced repetition, elaborative interrogation, and avoiding music during study. Morning study sessions maximize retention due to higher alertness, while combining visual and verbal information enhances encoding. These techniques work best when implemented consistently across all subjects with proper teacher guidance.
Retrieval practice: any activity where students have to generate answers.
Spacing: revisiting topics little and often.
Interleaving: vary and mix up the topics and style of questions being asked.
Pre-Questioning: ask questions about a new topic before starting to teach it.
Elaborative Interrogation: ask 'why would that be the case?'
Dual Coding: combine pictures and words.
Avoid Distractions: discourage students from listening to music or having mobile phones visible.
Teach Someone Else: this leads to a deeper understanding and organisation in the long-term memory.
Retrieval practice involves actively recalling information from memory rather than passively reviewing materials. Research shows students score 50% higher using practice tests compared to re-reading or highlighting because it strengthens neural pathways and reveals knowledge gaps that need attention.
The optimal spacing schedule involves reviewing material at 3 days, 8 days, 12 days, and 27 days after initial learning. Morning review sessions are particularly effective due to higher alertness levels, and this pattern combats the forgetting curve where 42% of information is lost within 20 minutes without review.
Interleaved practice involves mixing different topics or problem types during study sessions rather than studying one topic completely before moving to another. Students who used interleaving answered over three times more questions correctly one week after testing compared to those who revised materials in blocks.
Even instrumental music can reduce test scores by up to 33% compared to studying in silence because it competes for cognitive resources needed for processing information. Silent study environments consistently produce better memory retention and recall during exams, making this a crucial revision guideline for students.
Teachers can use elaborative interrogation by encouraging students to ask 'why' questions that help create meaningful connections between new information and existing knowledge. This transforms surface-level memorisation into deeper understanding and significantly improves long-term retention across all subjects.
Students commonly prefer re-reading despite its lower effectiveness, engage in cramming instead of spacing out study sessions, and listen to music during revision. They also tend to study one topic completely before moving on rather than interleaving different topics, which significantly reduces their learning effectiveness.
These peer-reviewed studies provide the research foundation for the strategies discussed in this article:
Eva Feigerlova et al. (2025)
This review examines how AI tools affect learning outcomes in medical and health education settings. While not directly about memory strategies, it provides teachers with evidence about emerging technologies that may enhance student learning and assessment in professional training contexts.
S. Gargrish et al. (2021)
This study demonstrates that augmented reality can significantly improve students' memory retention when learning complex 3D geometry concepts. Teachers can use this evidence to advocate for AR tools that make abstract mathematical concepts more concrete and memorable, especially for students who struggle with traditional textbook approaches.
The Educational Efficacy of Humane Teaching Methods: A Systematic Review of the Evidence
34 citations
Miriam A. Zemanova & A. Knight (2021)
This review shows that humane alternatives to animal use in science education are equally or more effective for student learning. Teachers in life sciences can confidently adopt ethical teaching methods knowing they support strong memory retention and skill development without compromising educational quality.
Science of Learning Strategy Series: Article 1, Distributed Practice.
18 citations
T. V. van Hoof et al. (2020)
This article explains how spacing out practice over time, rather than cramming, helps students achieve better mastery and long-term memory retention. Teachers can apply this evidence-based strategy by designing lesson plans and review schedules that revisit material multiple times across days or weeks instead of concentrating all practice in single sessions.
Distributed Practice or Spacing Effect
14 citations
Shana K. Carpenter (2020)
This paper provides theoretical explanations for why spaced learning produces better memory than massed practice, including how the brain processes information more effectively when given time between learning sessions. Understanding these cognitive mechanisms helps teachers design more effective study schedules and explain to students why distributed practice improves their exam performance and retention.
These peer-reviewed studies provide the research foundation for the strategies discussed in this article:
Academic and Wellness Outcomes Associated with use of Anki Spaced Repetition Software in Medical School View study ↗
19 citations
Jillian K Wothe et al. (2023)
This study examines how medical students use Anki, a digital flashcard app based on spaced repetition principles, and its impact on their academic performance and well-being. Teachers can learn from this research about how students are independently using technology to enhance memory retention, and consider whether similar spaced repetition tools might benefit their own classrooms for helping students review and retain course material over time.
Single-paper meta-analyses of the effects of spaced retrieval practice in nine introductory STEM courses: is the glass half full or half empty? View study ↗
10 citations
Campbell R. Bego et al. (2024)
This research analyzes the effectiveness of spaced retrieval practice, where students take repeated tests over time, across nine different college STEM courses. The findings help teachers understand the real-world effectiveness of this well-known memory strategy when applied in actual classrooms rather than laboratory settings, providing practical evidence about whether spacing out quizzes and practice tests truly improves long-term retention in science and math courses.
Immediate Versus Delayed Low-Stakes Questioning: Encouraging the Testing Effect Through Embedded Video Questions to Support Students’ Knowledge Outcomes, Self-Regulation, and Critical Thinking View study ↗
6 citations
Joseph T. Wong et al. (2024)
This study compares the effectiveness of asking questions immediately during educational videos versus delaying questions until later, examining how timing affects student learning and thinking skills. Teachers using video-based instruction can apply these findings to decide when to insert quiz questions or discussion prompts to maximize student retention, self-regulation, and deeper understanding of the material.
Engagement and learning in an electronic spaced repetition curriculum companion for a paediatrics academic half-day curriculum View study ↗
5 citations
J. McConnery et al. (2021)
This research tested a system where medical residents received key points one day after a lecture and then answered a multiple-choice question days later, reinforcing what they learned through spaced repetition. Teachers can adapt this approach by creating simple follow-up activities after lessons, sending students review questions or key concepts days later to strengthen memory retention without requiring extensive class time.
Addressing vaccine hesitancy: A systematic review comparing the efficacy of motivational versus educational interventions on vaccination uptake View study ↗
4 citations
S. Labbé et al. (2025)
This review compares traditional educational approaches with motivational interviewing techniques for changing health behaviors, finding that simply providing information is often insufficient for behavior change. Teachers can apply this insight beyond health topics, recognizing that helping students understand why something matters personally and building their motivation may be more effective than simply presenting facts, especially when teaching topics that require attitude or behavior changes.
