Getting Started with Metacognition

Getting Started with Metacognition shows how teachers can help learners plan, monitor, and evaluate their thinking in real classroom tasks. Metacognition means being aware of your own thinking and managing it. This includes choosing a strategy, checking if it works, and changing approach when needed (Flavell, 1979). The EEF guidance report links metacognition and self-regulation with about seven months' extra progress when schools teach these strategies clearly and carefully (Quigley et al., 2018).

In a Year 8 history lesson, this might mean asking learners to choose evidence before writing, pause halfway to check whether each paragraph answers the question, then write one sentence explaining what they will change next time. The aim is not extra reflection paperwork. It is better judgement during the task, so learners can spot confusion early and ask for the right support.

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Metacognition in Simple Terms for Teachers

Metacognition means awareness and regulation of one's own thinking: learners notice how they are approaching a task, judge whether the strategy is working, and change course when needed (Flavell, 1979). A learner with metacognitive skills can say, 'I am rereading but still not remembering this vocabulary, so I need to test myself instead.'

The strongest classroom claim is not that metacognition guarantees higher GCSE grades. The EEF Teaching and Learning Toolkit reports a more careful finding. Metacognition and self-regulation are linked with about seven months' additional progress when teachers teach them clearly and use them well (Quigley et al., 2018).

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Metacognition can improve teaching. Leaders need to raise awareness so it supports education more clearly. Self-regulated learners thrive (Brown, 1987). They plan, think about their progress, and change tactics when needed (Flavell, 1979; Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994).

Reflection is a key component of metacognition, but it should change what learners do next. In a mathematics lesson, ask learners to identify which step failed, which cue they missed, and what they will check first in the next problem. This keeps reflection tied to strategy use rather than a general comment about confidence.

Metacognitive strategies help learners self-regulate in lessons. This means they learn how to manage their own thinking and actions. Goal-oriented teaching keeps learners engaged and can improve their attainment. show that awareness and reflection can help learners achieve more.

Metacognition helps learners understand their own thinking. It also benefits teachers and leaders. Educators can create supportive spaces through reflection and self-regulation. This boosts learning and improves results (Flavell, 1979). Teaching practice can improve when metacognition is linked to clear feedback and careful strategy choice (Hattie, 2009; Dunlosky & Rawson, 2012).

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Metacognition vs Self-Regulated Learning

Metacognition is knowing how you think (Flavell, 1979). Self-regulated learning means managing your learning through goals, strategy choice, monitoring, and evaluation (Zimmerman, 2002). In simple terms, metacognition is about thinking, while self-regulated learning is about managing the whole learning process. Teachers need to know the difference so they can support better learner outcomes.

Self-regulation and metacognition are often used as if they mean the same thing. However, teachers need to understand the difference between them.

Self-regulation is an important skill for academic success and life beyond school. Zimmerman (2002) shows that it works in a cycle of planning, monitoring, and reflecting. Pintrich (2000) also stresses the key role of motivation. When learners direct their own learning, self-regulation can improve outcomes (Paris & Winograd, 1990).

Metacognition helps learners regulate themselves. Flavell (1979) showed that planning, monitoring, and evaluating help learners reach goals. Brown (1987) and Zimmerman (2000) found that regulating behaviour is also key for learners.

The other key strategies that contribute to self-regulation are:

Self-regulated learners have the learning knowledge and self-awareness to build good study habits.  When they complete assignments, they often think back to similar tasks they have done before. They use the techniques that worked well for those tasks. They also set and meet their own deadlines.  

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Top Metacognitive Strategies for Learners

The most effective metacognitive strategies follow a three-stage framework: planning (setting goals and choosing strategies), monitoring (checking progress during learning), and evaluating (reflecting on what worked and what didn't). Learners learn to ask themselves questions like 'Do I understand this?' and 'What should I do differently next time?' These strategies help struggling learners into self-regulated learners who know when and how to seek help.

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Planning, monitoring, and evaluating are key metacognitive strategies. Researchers have shown that teaching these strategies clearly can improve learner achievement (Hattie et al., 2017).  They also help learners regulate, or manage, their own learning (Flavell, 1979).  Teachers need to explain these processes and model them well (Bandura, 1977). This helps learners build a fuller understanding of how they learn (Zimmerman, 2000). 

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Planning

Metacognitive learners plan ahead. They set goals before learning (Flavell, 1979). Learners identify what matters most. They organise resources for the task (Zimmerman, 2002; Pintrich, 2000).

They will use the metacognitive knowledge they have developed during previous learning experiences to determine the most appropriate plan for the task they are faced with. 

For example, they may have learnt that reading before class is an effective strategy for them to absorb new material during the lesson. 

As the teacher is talking, they may start to form a mental model of the new topic and make associations with previous learning.  In turn, this helps them to identify which techniques may be most useful to them during the lesson based on what techniques worked well when they were learning the related topics.  

"What do I already know?", "What am I being asked to do?", and "What strategies do I have available?"  As learners face tough topics, they use metacognitive questions to plan, (Flavell, 1979). Researchers, Nelson and Narens (1994), found learners check their understanding during tasks. Brown (1987) noted they also evaluate learning after task completion.

This type of questioning helps learners to identify the priorities for the activity and plan how to use their time most effectively.   

They also monitor their progress, meticulously editing their work as they go. This helps them to spot errors early.  Research indicates that learners who self-regulate their writing produce better work (Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Metacognitive learners plan writing, setting deadlines for each section. They check progress and edit carefully, finding errors early. Learners complete work on time more often. Flavell (1979) showed metacognition helps learners understand and solve problems.

They will also have the self-awareness to know what time of the day they work most efficiently and utilise this knowledge to make the most effective use of their time. 

Metacognitive learners use strategy knowledge during memory tasks. For vocabulary, they are more likely to test themselves with retrieval practice than to rely on rereading or highlighting (Karpicke, 2008; Dunlosky et al., 2013). In class, this means learners cover the word list, recall definitions, then mark which words need another attempt.

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Monitoring

While learners are completing a learning task they will continually monitor their performance with the intention of adapting their approach if they are not on track to achieve their learning goals.  They will use the following metacognitive strategies to monitor their performance:

In response to the ongoing monitoring, learners are likely to revisit and modify their plan quite regularly.  They may decide to change the cognitive processes they are using or adjust the time limit assigned to each stage of their plan. 

If they were working independently, they may realise that they need a period of explicit instructionfrom their teacher before they can progress in their learning.  When learners have the metacognitive knowledge to identify when they need additional help, they will feel helped in their learning even when they are finding it difficult.  

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Evaluating

Metacognitive reflection helps learners understand the material more clearly. It also helps them spot weak areas or misunderstandings (Flavell, 1979).  Learners look at the whole task, not just the final piece of work. They review each stage, from early planning to final submission (Zimmerman, 2000). This builds self-awareness and can make future learning more effective (Hattie, 2009). It can also shift learners into a more active role in their education (Biggs, 1985). In this way, reflection links the learner, the task, and the learning setting. This can support better academic outcomes and a deeper grasp of the subject (Vygotsky, 1978).

Most importantly, they will reflect on the mental processes and study strategies they used as well as what the overall outcome was. 

As part of this reflection, they will make a plan for how they will approach similar tasks in the future and may choose to write this down in a learning journal to provide quick access to their new plan when they need it. 

Learners will add to their metacognitive knowledge by identifying the strengths and weaknesses to the approach they used and consider whether these would apply to different learning contexts. 

For example, they will want to determine whether the same strategy would have the same strengths with different subject matter.   

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Metacognition Research in Education

The strongest classroom claim should use the EEF's measured effect, not a guaranteed grade rise. Quigley et al. (2018) report that metacognition and self-regulation can add about seven months' progress when strategies are taught explicitly, modelled, and practised in subject tasks.

The evidence is promising but not automatic. EEF evaluations of ReflectED show that metacognition programmes can lose impact when scaled into everyday classrooms without enough time, training, or subject fit (Motteram et al., 2016; EEF, 2022). Treat the Toolkit headline as a reason to teach the approach well, not as a promise that worksheets will raise attainment.

Veenman and Beishuizen (2004) found that metacognitive regulation explains 17% of learner achievement. This means how learners plan, check and control their thinking matters. They also reported that innate cognitive ability only accounts for 10%. So, self-control of thinking skills is important.

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Research shows learners who use metacognitive strategies achieve better marks (EEF, 2021). Planning, monitoring, and evaluating help learners succeed, and these skills enable lifelong learning (Zimmerman, 2002).

Responding to learners' metacognitive knowledge boosts learning during the evaluation stage (Black & Wiliam, 1998). Lessons can end with metacognitive prompts for the learner.

Metacognitive prompts helped learners more than lesson summaries (Veenman et al., 2006). Learners using prompts scored higher on two knowledge tests (Zimmerman, 2000; Dunlosky & Rawson, 2012). Prompts support better learning, according to research by Hattie (2008).

Guo and Wei (2019) also showed that teacher feedback can raise the attainment of metacognitive learners. They found that learners' metacognitive processes increased when teachers gave regular verification feedback (telling learners if their answers were right or wrong), scaffolding (breaking complex tasks into small and manageable steps), and praise.

Metacognition measures help researchers. Flavell (1979) and Schraw and Dennison (1994) need these tools. They support learners' thinking about thinking. Brown (1987) showed this improves learning outcomes.

Pintrich and De Groot (1990) made the MSLQ to measure learner metacognition. Teachers still use it often. Research by Zimmerman (2002) highlights self regulation as vital for success. Dweck (2006) showed growth mindset boosts learner achievement.

The Metacognitive Awareness Inventory developed by Schraw and Dennison (1994) measures learner metacognitive awareness accurately. It contains 52 statements. Learners show how much they agree on a Likert scale.

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Key Benefits of Metacognition

Flavell (1979) showed that metacognition matters. Metcalfe & Shimamura (1994) found that learners gain when they know their own thinking. Zimmerman (2000) said teaching metacognition helps learners plan more clearly. Pintrich (2000) noted that self-regulation helps learners manage hard tasks.

They are better at making decisions, managing stress during learning, and using their time effectively.  These skills persist outside of their educational settings and support the learners to become lifelong learners.  

Mastering a range of metacognitive approaches also gives learners greater ownership over their learn ing and helps them to make changes to their learning environment. 

Learners achieve more when schools let them share views on learning. Research by Whitebread et al (2009) and Hattie (2012) shows this boosts learner metacognition. Greater metacognition improves cognitive outcomes for learners and classmates.

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Metacognition for Learner Engagement

Metacognition helps learners to articulate their learning needs and actively participate in their education. When learners understand how they learn best, they can communicate more effectively with teachers about what support they need. This leads to increased engagement because learners feel heard and take ownership of their learning process.

Student voice refers to any opportunity that learners are given to express their opinions.  This could be done formally through a school council, focus group, plenary activity or questionnaire, or informally by giving feedback to teachers during a lesson or at the end of a series of lessons.  

Metacognitive learners easily give feedback, as noted by researchers (e.g. Flavell, 1979). They understand thinking about learning, as described by Nelson (1996). This helps them engage with initiatives promoting pupil voice, as Zimmerman (2002) explained.

Learners are often able to provide valuable insights to teachers about learner learning, which allows teachers to adapt their teaching to best meet the needs of their learners.  

Nelson (1996) and Flavell (1979) found that learners build metacognition when they take an active role. Teachers can support this by giving learners chances to share their voice. These opportunities help learners develop their thinking and skills.

Bjork (1994) found teacher feedback improves with learner reflection. Learners link topics to previous knowledge, say Chi et al. (1981). Hattie & Timperley (2007) say learners name useful activities. This builds learner metacognitive awareness, (Flavell, 1979).

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Developing Teacher Metacognitive Skills

Researchers Kuhn (1999) and Costa (1991) suggest teachers should reflect on what works. Leaders can develop this with professional development. Modeling this thinking helps teachers equip learners, according to Flavell (1979).

For leaders, the main risk is a whole-school rollout that turns metacognition into extra worksheets. Keep the system small: agree one shared planning-monitoring-evaluating language, model it in departments, and check whether learners use it in real tasks. A Year 10 science team, for example, might use one common monitoring question during practical write-ups rather than a new reflection sheet for every lesson.

Research shows that metacognition matters in teacher training. (Flavell, 1979; Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009). Teachers can help learners think about their own thinking. Professional development should cover this clearly (Hattie, 2012; Costa & Kallick, 2015).

Teachers need to understand metacognition, which means thinking about learning. They also need to know how to help learners use it. Planning, monitoring, and evaluation skills benefit learners (Flavell, 1979). Dunlosky and Metcalfe (2009) provide useful strategies, and Nelson and Narens (1990) offer further insight.

The nature of these skills is determined by the subject matter and learning context, which means subject specialists are best placed to teach the cognitive moves in their discipline. A history teacher teaches learners how to check a source claim; a mathematics teacher teaches them how to test whether a method fits the problem.

Flavell (1979) showed learners achieve more when teachers use metacognition. Studies by Hattie (2008) and Marzano (1998) support this. Teachers who develop these skills positively impact learner outcomes.

Modelling metacognition helps learners (Flavell, 1979). Teachers also reflect on their lessons and adjust them (Schön, 1983). This boosts confidence and helps monitor impact during teaching (Hattie, 2012).

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Teaching Learners Metacognitive Skills

Teachers should model metacognition by showing learners how to plan, monitor, and evaluate their work. Lessons should include short reflection tasks. These help learners check what they understand and decide what to do next. With regular practice and feedback, learners slowly take more responsibility for their thinking (Flavell, 1979).

As mentioned above, metacognition can be taught implicitly during lessons by teachers modelling planning, monitoring and evaluating as part of the teaching process.  The simplest way to do this is for teachers to verbalise their thought process to the class:

Alternatively, metacognitive thinking can be taught explicitly by subject specialists.  In this case, teachers would introduce the concept of metacognition to their learners and explain how each of the three strategies can be applied to their subject. 

The learning context is very important; planning an essay in English requires different thinking from planning an answer to an exam question in mathematics. Generic reflection prompts can overload novices if they have not yet secured the subject knowledge needed for the task (Tricot & Sweller, 2014). Teach the content first, then ask learners to plan, monitor, or evaluate the specific disciplinary move they are making.

Researchers suggest simple strategies help learners. Encourage journal use, as recommended by Hattie (2009). Exam wrappers help learners reflect, a point made by Ambrose et al. (2010). During lessons, use prompts to strengthen planning, monitoring, and evaluation, as proposed by Flavell (1979).

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Learning Journal

A document for learners to record their thoughts and reflections following a lesson or series of lessons. 

It is normally used to reflect on the process of learning rather than specific learning outcomes, but it may be useful to highlight links between topics or to draw parallels between the current tasks and ones they have completed before. 

Learners should also identify their strengths and weaknesses and what they would do the same or differently for a similar task in the future.

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Exam Wrapper

A set of questions that can be completed before and after an assessment to reflect on the revision strategies (before) and the outcome of the assessment (after). 

The purpose of an exam wrapper is to help learners identify which revision techniques were most helpful to them and whether their exam technique was effective. 

If a learner struggled with time-management during the exam, they would record this on the wrapper and formulate a plan to help manage their time better in future assessments.  

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Metacognitive Prompts

These questions, or question starters, help learners build metacognitive awareness before, during, and after a task. Keep prompts short. Offer choices that do not rely on spoken think-alouds, such as drawing, ticking, colour coding, or choosing from two strategy cards. This is important for SEND and neurodivergent learners, because executive function differences can make step-by-step verbal reflection look weaker than their real self-awareness.

1. Planning:

How much time should I spend on this task?  

How can I ensure that I stay on track?

Have I completed a task like this before?  

What do I know that will help me do this task?

2. Monitoring:

Am I on track to complete the task on time?

Have I understood what is required?  How can I be sure?

Is there a more effective way for me to complete this task?

3. Evaluating:

Did I achieve what I wanted to achieve?

What approach will I take if I need to do a similar task in the future?

What do I want to learn more about?

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Metacognition Resources for Teachers

The Education Endowment Foundation provides resources on metacognitive strategies. Academic journals and courses offer insights on using these approaches well. Many schools share case studies and examples via networks (e.g. Higgins et al., 2018) and online groups.

Here are five studies on metacognition and their implications, accompanied by a 50-word summary for each. Whilst this is not an extensive list, these studies should be useful for teachers who are doing research in the area of metacognition.

1. Perry, J., Lundie, D., & Golder, G. (2018). Metacognition in schools: what does the literature suggest about the effectiveness of teaching metacognition in schools? Educational Review, 71, 483-500.

Researchers argue that learner outcomes improve when teachers teach metacognition directly. These outcomes include better grades and stronger well-being (e.g., Flavell, 1979; Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009; Hattie, 2012).

2. Kuhn, D., & Dean, Jr., D. (2004). Metacognition: A Bridge Between Cognitive Psychology and Educational Practise. Theory Into Practise, 43, 268-273.

Metacognition links how learners think and how we teach, say researchers (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979). Metacognition helps learners become skilled thinkers in classrooms, according to theories (Efklides, 2008; Kruger & Dunning, 1999). We should use this knowledge to improve learning strategies.

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3. Gunstone, R., & Northfield, J. (1994). Metacognition and learning to teach. International Journal of Science Education, 16, 523-537.

Teacher training must focus on metacognition development. Flavell (1979) found that it helps learners and teachers. Hattie (2012) suggested research for UK classroom applications.

4. Wall, K., & Hall, E. (2016). Teachers as metacognitive role models. European Journal of Teacher Education, 39, 403-418.

This link benefits learners. Teachers who develop learner metacognition also boost their own skills (Schraw, 1998). Effective teaching strategies improve learner outcomes and teacher knowledge (Hattie, 2012). This creates shared growth for teachers and learners (Veenman, 1990).

Metacognition alone does not ensure success for the learner. (Nelson & Narens, 1990; Flavell, 1979). What matters is behaviour change driven by metacognition. This behaviour change affects learner progress. (Nelson & Narens, 1990; Flavell, 1979).

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