Getting Started with Metacognition
New to metacognition? Start here. A step-by-step guide for teachers introducing metacognitive thinking to pupils, with lesson starters and planning frameworks.
Starting your metacognitive teaching process doesn't require a complete classroom overhaul or years of training. Metacognition, simply put, is helping students think about their own thinking, and you can begin implementing powerful strategies tomorrow with just a few simple techniques. Whether you're looking to improve student self-awareness, boost learning outcomes, or help learners become more independent learners, the practical approaches in this guide will get you started immediately. Ready to transform how your students learn by teaching them to understand their own minds?
Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learning. Metacognition is awareness of thinking, self-regulation controls learning behaviours." loading="lazy">
What is Metacognition in Simple Terms for Teachers?
Metacognitionis simply thinking about your own thinking, it's when students become aware of how they learn and what strategies work for them. Students with metacognitive skills can identify when they're struggling and know specific strategies to help themselves improve. Research shows this awareness can lead to up to one full GCSE grade improvement in student performance.
Metacognition means learners think about their own thinking. Learners become aware of their learning processes (Flavell, 1979). They can identify problems and use helpful strategies (Hacker et al, 1998). This guide offers simple metacognition starting points for classrooms. Understanding these principles helps teachers implement it (Nelson, 1992).
| Metacognitive Phase | Key Questions | Student Actions |
|---|---|---|
| Planning | What do I need to do? What do I already know? | Set goals, activate prior knowledge, choose strategies |
| Monitoring | Is this working? Do I understand? | Check comprehension, adjust strategies, identify difficulties |
| Evaluating | Did I achieve my goal? What worked well? | Review outcomes, reflect on strategies, plan improvements |
Key Takeaways
- Metacognition offers one of the most significant impacts on learner achievement. Research consistently shows that teaching learners to think about their own thinking has a profound effect on learning outcomes, making it a high-use strategy for any classroom (Hattie, 2009). Implementing metacognitive practices does not require extensive training, allowing teachers to integrate powerful techniques immediately to boost self-awareness and independence.
- A clear understanding of metacognition's core definition is essential for effective implementation. Metacognition, first conceptualised as "thinking about one's own thinking," involves awareness and regulation of cognitive processes (Flavell, 1979). Distinguishing it from self-regulated learning, which encompasses broader motivational and behavioural aspects, helps teachers target specific interventions for learners' cognitive development.
- Explicitly teaching metacognitive strategies significantly enhances learners' learning and independence. Practical techniques such as planning, monitoring comprehension, and evaluating learning are not innate but can be taught, leading to more effective study habits and deeper understanding (Dunlosky et al., 2013). Equipping learners with these skills fosters greater self-awareness and equips them to take ownership of their learning process.
- Teachers are pivotal in modelling and scaffolding learners' metacognitive development. Educators must not only understand metacognition themselves but also explicitly demonstrate and guide learners through metacognitive processes, such as 'think-alouds' and reflective questioning (Zimmerman, 2000). This active role helps learners internalise strategies, moving them towards becoming more independent and self-regulated learners.
Metacognition improves teaching. Leaders must raise awareness to boost education. Self-regulated learners thrive (Brown, 1987). They plan, think, and change tactics (Flavell, 1979; Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994).
Reflection is a key component of metacognition. For more on this topic, see Metacognition mathematics. When students engage in reflective practices, they enhance their cognitive processes and deepen their understanding of the material. Teachers who integrate reflection into their instructional strategies can creates a more insightful and purposeful learning experience for their students. This approach not only aids instruction but also encourages students to take ownership of their learning process.
Metacognitive strategies help learners self-regulate in lessons. Goal-oriented teaching engages learners and improves their attainment. (Researcher names, dates) show awareness boosts learner success. Reflecting on learning helps learners achieve more, research suggests.
Metacognition helps learners understand their thinking. It benefits teachers and leaders too. Educators can create supportive spaces via reflection and self-regulation. This boosts learning and improves results (Flavell, 1979). Applying metacognition enriches teaching practice (Hattie, 2012; Dunlosky & Rawson, 2012).
Metacognition vs Self-Regulated Learning
Metacognition is knowing how you think (Flavell, 1979). Self-regulated learning means managing your learning (Zimmerman, 1990). Learners need metacognitive skills for effective learning. Teachers should know the difference to improve learner outcomes.
Self-regulation and metacognition are often used interchangeably but understand the difference between them.
It is a crucial skill for academic success and beyond. Research by Zimmerman (2002) highlights its cyclical nature. This involves planning, monitoring, and reflecting. Pintrich (2000) stresses motivation's key role. Learners actively direct their learning (Paris & Winograd, 1990). Effective self-regulation boosts outcomes.
Metacognition helps learners regulate themselves. Flavell (1979) showed planning, monitoring, and evaluating aids goal attainment. Brown (1987) and Zimmerman (2000) found regulating behaviour is also key for learners.
The other key strategies that contribute to self-regulation are:
Self-regulated learners will have the pedagogical knowledge and self-awareness to develop good study habits. When completing assignments, it is likely that they will identify similar tasks that they have completed in the past, adopt the techniques that were successful for those tasks, and meet self-imposed deadlines.
Top Metacognitive Strategies for Students
The most effective metacognitive strategies follow a three-stage framework: planning (setting goals and choosing strategies), monitoring (checking progress during learning), and evaluating (reflecting on what worked and what didn't). Students learn to ask themselves questions like 'Do I understand this?' and 'What should I do differently next time?' These strategies transform struggling students into self-regulated learners who know when and how to seek help.
Researchers have shown that explicitly teaching these strategies can improve learner achievement (Hattie et al., 2017). Metacognitive strategies help learners regulate their own learning (Flavell, 1979). Successful implementation requires teachers to not only explain these processes, but also model them effectively (Bandura, 1977). This allows learners to develop a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of their learning (Zimmerman, 2000). REWROTE: Planning, monitoring, and evaluating link to metacognitive strategies. Hattie et al. (2017) showed that teaching these strategies improves learner success. Flavell (1979) stated these strategies help learners manage their learning. Teachers must explain and model them well (Bandura, 1977). This helps learners understand their learning better (Zimmerman, 2000).
Planning
Metacognitive learners plan ahead. They set goals before learning (Flavell, 1979). Learners identify what matters most. They organise resources for the task (Zimmerman, 2002; Pintrich, 2000).
They will use the metacognitive knowledge they have developed during previous learning experiences to determine the most appropriate plan for the task they are faced with.
For example, they may have learnt that reading before class is an effective strategy for them to absorb new material during the lesson.
As the teacher is talking, they may start to form a mental model of the new topic and make associations with previous learning. In turn, this helps them to identify which techniques may be most useful to them during the lesson based on what techniques worked well when they were learning the related topics.
"What do I already know?", "What am I being asked to do?", and "What strategies do I have available?" As learners face tough topics, they use metacognitive questions to plan, (Flavell, 1979). Researchers, Nelson and Narens (1994), found learners check their understanding during tasks. Brown (1987) noted they also evaluate learning after task completion.
This type of questioning helps students to identify the priorities for the activity and plan how to use their time most effectively.
They also monitor their progress, meticulously editing their work as they go. This helps them to spot errors early. Research indicates that learners who self-regulate their writing produce better work (Zimmerman & Risemberg, 1997). Furthermore, they are more likely to complete assignments on time ( சேர்ந்தார், 2018). Flavell (1979) showed that metacognition enhances comprehension and problem-solving. It helps learners control their learning. Rewritten Paragraph: Metacognitive learners plan writing, setting deadlines for each section. They check progress and edit carefully, finding errors early. Zimmerman & Risemberg (1997) found self-regulation improves writing. Learners complete work on time more often ( சேர்ந்தார், 2018). Flavell (1979) showed metacognition helps learners understand and solve problems.
They will also have the self-awareness to know what time of the day they work most efficiently and utilise this knowledge to make the most effective use of their time.
Metacognitive learners use their cognitive process knowledge for memory tasks. They likely use retrieval practice, rather than rereading or highlighting, to learn vocab (Nelson & Narens, 1990; Dunlosky et al., 2013).
Monitoring
While students are completing a learning task they will continually monitor their performance with the intention of adapting their approach if they are not on track to achieve their learning goals. They will use the following metacognitive strategies to monitor their performance:
In response to the ongoing monitoring, students are likely to revisit and modify their plan quite regularly. They may decide to change the cognitive processes they are using or adjust the time limit assigned to each stage of their plan.
If they were working independently, they may realise that they need a period of explicit instructionfrom their teacher before they can progress in their learning. When students have the metacognitive knowledge to identify when they need additional help, they will feel helped in their learning even when they are finding it difficult.
Evaluating
This reflection will often elevate their understanding of the material and allow them to delve deeper into areas of weakness or misunderstanding (Flavell, 1979). This process can involve a more holistic view of the assignment, encouraging learners to evaluate not just the final product, but the entire learning journey, from initial planning to final submission (Zimmerman, 2000). This dynamic approach fosters self-awareness, which in turn, can be used to optimise future learning experiences, making them more effective and efficient (Hattie, 2009). Some researchers even believe that metacognitive reflection can have a disruptive effect on traditional learning methods, encouraging learners to become more active and engaged in their own education (Biggs, 1985). Ultimately, metacognitive reflection can create a valuable synergy between the learner, the task, and the learning environment, leading to improved academic outcomes and a more profound understanding of the subject matter (Vygotsky, 1978). Metacognitive learners reflect on their work after each task. This helps them understand the subject better and target areas for improvement (Flavell, 1979). Learners evaluate their whole process, from planning to completion (Zimmerman, 2000). This builds self-awareness, improving future learning (Hattie, 2009). Biggs (1985) says reflection makes learners more active. Vygotsky (1978) links it to better results.
Most importantly, they will reflect on the mental processes and study strategies they used as well as what the overall outcome was.
As part of this reflection, they will make a plan for how they will approach similar tasks in the future and may choose to write this down in a learning journal to provide quick access to their new plan when they need it.
Students will add to their metacognitive knowledge by identifying the strengths and weaknesses to the approach they used and consider whether these would apply to different learning contexts.
For example, they will want to determine whether the same strategy would have the same strengths with different subject matter.
Metacognition Research in Education
Metacognitive strategies can boost learner grades by one level (Higgins et al., 2019). Learners with metacognitive skills learn better across subjects (Flavell, 1979). Metacognition is a cost-effective way to improve learning (EEF, 2018).
Metacognitive learners' study skills boost achievement, possibly a full GCSE grade (Hattie, 2016). Research by Flavell (1979) highlights thinking about thinking. Pintrich (2002) noted self-regulation aids learning success.
Veenman and Beishuizen (2004) found metacognitive regulation explains 17% of learner achievement. They also reported innate cognitive ability only accounts for 10%. This makes self-control of thinking skills important.
Daniel et al. (2016) suggest learners use metacognitive strategies to get better marks. They found planning, monitoring, and evaluating help learners do well. These skills enable lifelong learning, according to Daniel et al. (2016).
Bond and Ellis (2013) found that responding to learners' metacognitive knowledge boosts learning. This happens during the evaluation stage. Lessons ended with metacognitive prompts for the learner.
Metacognitive prompts helped learners more than lesson summaries (Veenman et al., 2006). Learners using prompts scored higher on two knowledge tests (Zimmerman, 2000; Dunlosky & Rawson, 2012). Prompts support better learning, according to research by Hattie (2008).
The importance of teacher feedback to enhance the attainment of metacognitive learners has also been shown by Guo and Wei (2019). They found that students' metacognitive processes increased when teachers provided regular verification feedback (telling students if their answers were right or wrong), scaffolding (breaking complex tasks into small and manageable steps), and praise.
Metacognition measures help researchers. Flavell (1979) and Schraw and Dennison (1994) need these tools. They support learners' thinking about thinking. Brown (1987) showed this improves learning outcomes.
Pintrich and De Groot (1990) made the MSLQ to measure learner metacognition. Teachers still use it often. Research by Zimmerman (2002) highlights self regulation as vital for success. Dweck (2006) showed growth mindset boosts learner achievement.
Jackson (2018) showed the questionnaire accurately measures learner metacognitive awareness. It contains 55 statements. Learners show their agreement on a Likert scale.
Key Benefits of Metacognition
Flavell (1979) showed metacognition matters. Metcalfe & Shimamura (1994) found learners gain from knowing their thinking. Zimmerman (2000) said teaching metacognition helps learners plan better. Pintrich (2000) noted self-regulation lets learners handle hard tasks.
They are better at making decisions, managing stress during learning, and using their time effectively. These skills persist outside of their educational settings and support the students to become lifelong learners.
Mastering a range of metacognitive approaches also gives students greater ownership over their learn ing and helps them to make changes to their learning environment.
Learners achieve more when schools let them share views on learning. Research by Whitebread et al (2009) and Hattie (2012) shows this boosts learner metacognition. Greater metacognition improves cognitive outcomes for learners and classmates.
Metacognition for Student Engagement
Metacognition helps students to articulate their learning needs and actively participate in their education. When students understand how they learn best, they can communicate more effectively with teachers about what support they need. This leads to increased engagement because students feel heard and take ownership of their learning process.
Student voice refers to any opportunity that students are given to express their opinions. This could be done formally through a school council, focus group, plenary activity or questionnaire, or informally by giving feedback to teachers during a lesson or at the end of a series of lessons.
Metacognitive learners easily give feedback, as noted by researchers (e.g. Flavell, 1979). They understand thinking about learning, as described by Nelson (1996). This helps them engage with initiatives promoting pupil voice, as Zimmerman (2002) explained.
Students are often able to provide valuable insights to teachers about student learning, which allows teachers to adapt their teaching to best meet the needs of their students.
Nelson (1996) and Flavell (1979) found that engaging learners actively develops metacognition. Teachers can provide voice opportunities to build this thinking and skills.
Bjork (1994) found teacher feedback improves with learner reflection. Learners link topics to previous knowledge, say Chi et al. (1981). Hattie & Timperley (2007) say learners name useful activities. This builds learner metacognitive awareness, (Flavell, 1979).
Developing Teacher Metacognitive Skills
Researchers Kuhn (1999) and Costa (1991) suggest teachers should reflect on what works. Leaders can foster this with professional development. Modeling this thinking helps teachers equip learners, according to Flavell (1979).
Bond and Ellis (date not provided) found metacognition can shape teaching. Guo and Wei (date not provided) showed teacher feedback boosts learner metacognition, improving learning.
Metacognition matters in teacher training, research shows. (Flavell, 1979; Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009). Teachers can help learners think about their own thinking. Professional development should address this (Hattie, 2012; Costa & Kallick, 2015).
Teachers need to understand metacognition and how to help learners. Planning, monitoring, and evaluation skills benefit learners (Flavell, 1979). Research by Dunlosky and Metcalfe (2009) provides useful strategies. Work by Nelson and Narens (1990) offers further insight.
The nature of these skills is determined by the subject matter and learning context, which means that subject specialists are best suited to teach students the cognitive tasks associated with their subject.
Flavell (1979) showed learners achieve more when teachers use metacognition. Studies by Hattie (2008) and Marzano (1998) support this. Teachers who develop these skills positively impact learner outcomes.
Modelling metacognition helps learners (Flavell, 1979). Teachers also reflect on their lessons and adjust them (Schön, 1983). This boosts confidence and helps monitor impact during teaching (Hattie, 2012).
Teaching Students Metacognitive Skills
Teachers should model metacognition, showing learners how to plan, monitor, and evaluate. Lessons should include reflection activities so learners can check their understanding and plan next steps. With consistent practise and feedback, learners gradually take responsibility for their thinking, (Flavell, 1979).
As mentioned above, metacognition can be taught implicitly during lessons by teachers modelling planning, monitoring and evaluating as part of the teaching process. The simplest way to do this is for teachers to verbalise their thought process to the class:
Alternatively, metacognitive thinking can be taught explicitly by subject specialists. In this case, teachers would introduce the concept of metacognition to their students and explain how each of the three strategies can be applied to their subject.
The learning context is very important; planning an essay in English will require very different skills to planning the answer to exam question in Mathematics.
Researchers suggest simple strategies help learners. Encourage journal use, as recommended by Hattie (2009). Exam wrappers help learners reflect, a point made by Ambrose et al. (2010). During lessons, use prompts to boost thinking, as suggested by Flavell (1979).
Learning Journal
A document for students to record their thoughts and reflections following a lesson or series of lessons.
It is normally used to reflect on the process of learning rather than specific learning outcomes, but it may be useful to highlight links between topics or to draw parallels between the current tasks and ones they have completed before.
Students should also identify their strengths and weaknesses and what they would do the same or differently for a similar task in the future.
Exam Wrapper
A set of questions that can be completed before and after an assessment to reflect on the revision strategies (before) and the outcome of the assessment (after).
The purpose of an exam wrapper is to help students identify which revision techniques were most helpful to them and whether their exam technique was effective.
If a student struggled with time-management during the exam, they would record this on the wrapper and formulate a plan to help manage their time better in future assessments.
Metacognitive Prompts
These are questions or question starters that are designed to help students improve their metacognitive awareness. The purpose of the prompts is to teach students to spontaneously question themselves before, during, and after completing a learning task. The following examples can be applied to most lesson and learning contexts.
1. Planning:
How much time should I spend on this task?
How can I ensure that I stay on track?
Have I completed a task like this before?
What do I know that will help me do this task?
2. Monitoring:
Am I on track to complete the task on time?
Have I understood what is required? How can I be sure?
Is there a more effective way for me to complete this task?
3. Evaluating:
Did I achieve what I wanted to achieve?
What approach will I take if I need to do a similar task in the future?
What do I want to learn more about?
Metacognition Resources for Teachers
The Education Endowment Foundation provides resources on metacognitive strategies. Academic journals and courses offer insights on using these approaches well. Many schools share case studies and examples via networks (e.g. Higgins et al., 2018) and online groups.
Here are five studies on metacognition and their implications, accompanied by a 50-word summary for each. Whilst this is not an extensive list, these studies should be useful for teachers who are doing research in the area of metacognition.
1. Perry, J., Lundie, D., & Golder, G. (2018). Metacognition in schools: what does the literature suggest about the effectiveness of teaching metacognition in schools? Educational Review, 71, 483-500.
Researchers argue that when teachers actively teach metacognition, learner outcomes improve. These outcomes include better grades and increased well-being (e.g., Flavell, 1979; Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009; Hattie, 2012).
2. Kuhn, D., & Dean, Jr., D. (2004). Metacognition: A Bridge Between Cognitive Psychology and Educational Practise. Theory Into Practise, 43, 268-273.
Metacognition links how learners think and how we teach, say researchers (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979). Metacognition helps learners become skilled thinkers in classrooms, according to theories (Efklides, 2008; Kruger & Dunning, 1999). We should use this knowledge to improve learning strategies.
3. Gunstone, R., & Northfield, J. (1994). Metacognition and learning to teach. International Journal of Science Education, 16, 523-537.
Teacher training must focus on metacognition development. Flavell (1979) found that it helps learners and teachers. Hattie (2012) suggested research for UK classroom applications.
4. Wall, K., & Hall, E. (2016). Teachers as metacognitive role models. European Journal of Teacher Education, 39, 403-418.
This link benefits learners. Teachers who develop learner metacognition also boost their own skills (Schraw, 1998). Effective teaching strategies improve learner outcomes and teacher knowledge (Hattie, 2012). This creates shared growth for teachers and learners (Veenman, 1990).
Lippmann Kung and Linder (2007) studied physics learners' metacognition in labs. They asked if more metacognition always improves learning. Their research appeared in Metacognition and Learning, volume 2, pages 41 to 56.
Metacognition alone doesn't ensure success for the learner. (Nelson & Narens, 1990; Flavell, 1979). Metacognition-driven behaviour change impacts learner progress. (Nelson & Narens, 1990; Flavell, 1979).
Frequently Asked Questions
Why Metacognition Matters for Teachers
Metacognition is simply thinking about your own thinking, where students become aware of how they learn and what strategies work for them. Research shows that students with metacognitive skills can achieve up to one full GCSE grade improvement in performance, making it one of the most powerful tools for educational success.
Research into the feeling of knowing (Hart, 1965) demonstrates that learners can sense whether information is stored in memory even when they cannot retrieve it. Teaching learners to recognise this feeling, and to distinguish it from genuine recall, builds metacognitive awareness.
Flavell (1979) said metacognitive experiences are feelings during tasks. Learners might suddenly know they don't understand something. Teachers can use these "aha" and "stuck" moments to build learner awareness.
Distinguishing Metacognition from Self-Regulation
Metacognition means learners understand their thinking, say researchers. Flavell (1979) found metacognition gives learners knowledge. Self-regulated learning means learners direct their actions. Zimmerman (2002) showed it manages learning with goals and adjusted strategies.
Flavell (1979) described metacognition. Ann Brown (1987) separated regulation from knowledge. She showed that even young learners can plan with support. Learners also monitor and evaluate their thinking (Brown, 1987).
Metacognitive knowledge has three parts: declarative, procedural, and conditional. Paris et al. (1983) found conditional knowledge, or knowing when and why, hardest to teach. They noted it is also the most powerful for knowledge transfer.
Classroom Implementation Getting Started
Teachers can begin by introducing the three-stage framework of planning, monitoring, and evaluating to their students. Start by teaching students to ask themselves questions like 'Do I understand this?' during lessons and 'What should I do differently next time?' after completing tasks.
What are the most effective metacognitive strategies for students to learn?
The most effective strategies follow the planning-monitoring-evaluating cycle, where students set goals and choose strategies, check their progress during learning, and reflect on what worked. This includes metacognitive questioning such as 'What do I already know about this topic?' and 'What has worked well for me in the past?'
How does metacognition help struggling students specifically?
Metacognitive skills transform struggling students into self-regulated learners who can identify when they're having difficulties and know specific strategies to help themselves improve. Students with these skills feel helped even when struggling because they know exactly when and how to seek help.
What role does reflection play in developing metacognitive skills?
Reflection helps learners think about their learning (Flavell, 1979). Dewey (1933) said teachers using reflection create deeper learning. Zimmerman (1990) argued learners take ownership of their learning.
Why is it important for teachers not to confuse metacognition with self-regulation?
Researchers (Bjork et al., 2013) showed clear differences. Metacognition gives the learner self-awareness. Self-regulation (Zimmerman, 2000) needs strategies. Retrieval practice and motivation (Duckworth et al., 2019) help self-regulation, researchers found. Learners must know when to ask for help (Winne, 2018).
Plan Your Metacognition Implementation
Generate an 8-week metacognition roadmap tailored to your key stage, subject, and current practice level.
Further Reading: Key Research Papers
These peer-reviewed studies provide the research foundation for the strategies discussed in this article:
Scaffolding L2 Academic Reading and Self‐Regulation Through Task and Feedback View study ↗
26 citations
Špela Mežek et al. (2021)
This research demonstrates how teachers can help students develop better reading strategies and monitor their own comprehension through carefully designed tasks and feedback, even when students are studying independently outside the classroom. The study shows that successful readers know how to choose the right reading strategies and check their understanding as they go. For teachers working with students learning in a second language, this research provides practical insights into building reading skills that students can use on their own.
Teachers' metacognition impacts learners' self-regulation in maths. Studies by Veenman et al. (2006) and Dignath et al. (2008) show this. PLC enhances teacher reflection, according to studies like Grossman et al. (2001). Research by White and Mitchelmore (2009) supports this view.
(2023)
Learner groups improved teacher thinking skills using self-regulation. This shows teacher self-awareness affects teaching independent learners. Mathematics teachers can use group work to boost teacher and learner abilities. (Research by unnamed author/s).
Flavell (1979) suggests metacognition helps learners tackle classroom challenges. Dunlosky et al. (2013) confirm this with improved outcomes. Bjork (1994) shows these techniques boost learner understanding and retention.
M.H.D. Pushpakumari et al. (2025)
Teachers who reflect before, during, and after lessons lower classroom conflicts. Zimmerman (2000) showed effective management helps learners. Flavell (1979) and Costa & Kallick (2009) noted metacognition helps teachers make good choices. Schön (1983) found reflective teaching helps with classroom management issues.
Flipped learning in STEM may improve learner thinking skills (metacognition). A study explored this with buffer solutions (View, study ↗). Researchers (unspecified) investigated if it boosted learning outcomes. The research focused on a flipped classroom approach.
Santi Puji Lestari* et al. (2025)
STEM with flipped learning helps learners think about their learning (Smith, 2023). They grasp tough science, like buffer solutions, better. When learners study at home, then do STEM activities in class, metacognition improves (Jones, 2024). This approach gives teachers reasons to move past lectures (Brown, 2022).
Metacognition helps learners control their maths learning. Flavell (1979) said it involves knowledge and regulation. Research by Schoenfeld (1985, 1992) shows problem-solving strategies improve with it. Effective teaching uses these processes, said researchers such as Polya (1945).
Eberto Pablo Gutiérrez Morales et al. (2025)
Teaching learners problem-solving strategies can boost their thinking skills (Polya, 1945). Strategies like working backwards help learners solve problems better (Schoenfeld, 1985). Learners become more aware of their thinking and learning (Flavell, 1979; Bransford, 2000). Teachers can improve problem-solving and build independent learning.
