Executive Function in the Classroom

What is Executive function?

Executive Function (EF) consists of a number of different processes that help individuals to manage everyday life. The Harvard Center for the Developing Child likens EF to the body's 'air traffic control' system, where we plan, organise and manage ourselves.

Another way of looking at Executive Functioning is to compare it with a conductor and orchestra. The conductor of the orchestra or the air traffic controller organise and manage the musicians or the aeroplanes.

‍

working memory, self-regulation, cognitive flexibility, and goal-oriented focus" loading="lazy">

‍

They both have a future goal: for the musicians to play the piece of music or for the aeroplanes to take off or land at a particular time and on a particular runway. The idea of Executive Functioning relates to carrying out a task where simply replying on intuition or gut instinct is not enough. Executive Function skills are needed when you have to concentrate and pay attention.

There is no one agreed definition of EF, but there is agreement about the three core areas that make up EF. Understanding executive function development helps educators recognize how these skills emerge over time. These are working memory, self-regulation and cognitive flexibility. Working memory is about being able to hold information your head and manipulate that information.

Working memory is a key factor in academic attainments: ‘Research suggests that working memory at the start of formal education is a more powerful predictor of academic success than IQ.’ (Alloway and Alloway, 2010).

‍

‍

‍

What is cognitive flexibility?

Cognitive flexibility involves being able to adjust what you do, find another way to solve a problem or look at a problem. Seeing something from another's perspective involves cognitive flexibility. Thinking outside the box is another example. Cognitive flexibility involves using cognitive skills in order to reason and solve problems. 

Executive function includes several different types of cognitive functions, including attention, memory, planning, organization, decision-making, self-control, and emotional regulation. These functions allow us to think logically and creatively while solving problems.

‍

‍

Why is self-regulation so important?

Self-regulation involves controlling your attention, behaviour, and thoughts. It is also sometimes referred to as inhibitory control. Can you press the override button or put the brakes on? Resisting temptation, delaying gratification.

The infamous Marshmallow test is a well-known experiment in Psychology that looked at self-regulation in children. It was carried out in 1972 at Stamford University with nursery-aged children. A child was put in room with a favourite treat (a marshmallow).

The child was told if they waited 15 minutes without eating the treat they could have a second treat. The researchers found that children who could wait for longer (so could delay gratification) had better outcomes in later life.

Later studies found more subtle differences, where the socio-economic status of the child was a factor. Self-regulation is a pre-requisite for cognitive flexibility since the individual has to attend to the task or problem and inhibit impulsive trial and error responding. Similarly, working memory would be challenged if the individual jumped in with an ill-thought-out response.

‍

‍

‍

How Can Teachers Promote Executive Function Development in Students?

Teachers can promote executive function development by incorporating working memory exercises, self-regulation activities, and cognitive flexibility tasks into daily lessons. Strategies include using visual schedules, teaching students to break down complex tasks into steps, and practicing switching between different types of activities. Consistent routines and explicit instruction in planning and organization skills are particularly effective.

‍

‍

It is important to think about EF as a set of skills. It is not a single concept such as the notion of g or general ability. However, there is some correlation between fluid intelligence and EF because fluid intelligence and EF involve similar abilities and processes: deductive and inductive reasoning, analogies and abstract relationships.

When we think about Executive Functions skills, it isn't helpful to try to separate out each skills, because Executive Functioning involves integrating a number of related skills. 

In addition to the three core agreed areas, some researchers have suggested a wider range of skills and behaviours involved in EF. For example, Dawson and Guare have produced a Taxonomy of EF where 11 areas are suggested.

EF is sometimes divided into two: 'hot' and 'cold' EF. Hot EFs are where there is high emotional content, so inhibiting emotional control is important. Emotional control isn't about expecting the child or young person to 'out a lid on' their emotions.

Rather emotional control is having ways of understanding and managing emotions so that the individual can cope with everyday life and its challenges. So small setbacks don't lead to big emotions that are out of proportion to the event that triggered them. 

Cold EFs are where there is no emotional factor, such as planning and thinking. Tasks that involve cool EF are considered to be decontextualized and thus more emotionally neutral.

There is a neurological element to EF. It was initially thought that only the frontal lobes of the brain were the main neurological location of EF. However, this view has now changed and developed as our understanding of brain structure and function has developed.

The frontal lobes are involved in EF, but in conjunction with other areas of the brain. Current thinking is that EF involves interconnecting areas of the brain, so there isn’t one localised area. EF involves the prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia and thalamus as well as the frontal lobes. 

‍

What role does executive function play in school life?

EF is important because it involves the integration of a range of skills and behaviours that help the individual cope with everyday life. We all need to set goals, organise ourselves and think ahead. Our lives are likely to be pretty chaotic if we always behaved in an impulsive way.

In relation to schooling, curriculum access can be facilitated by sound EF. For example, the child or young person approaches learning in an organised and systematic way and can inhibit their responses on order to maintain attention to a task and see it through to the end.

There is evidence that young children develop and use Executive Function skills and the ability to inhibit at age 4 is correlated with later attainment outcomes. A growing research base has documented the important relationship between EF and young children’s early academic outcomes.

‍

‍

What Is the Connection Between Executive Function and Self-Regulation?

Self-regulation is one of the three core components of executive function, alongside working memory and cognitive flexibility. It enables students to control impulses, manage emotions, and maintain focus on tasks despite distractions. Poor self-regulation can sabotage learning by preventing students from overriding immediate impulses to achieve long-term academic goals.

Self-regulation is just one of the processes involved in EF. However, it is singled out here for further consideration because poor self-regulation is likely to affect other elements of EF. The Education Endowment Foundation Guidance Report about metacognition and self-regulation comments:

'Essentially, self-regulation is about the extent to which learners......are aware of their strengths and weaknesses and the strategies they use to learn. It describes how they can motivate themselves to engage in learning and develop strategies to enhance their learning and to improve. It will look different for learners of different ages, and for different tasks, but teachers will recognise these characteristics in their most effective learners.'  (Education Endowment Foundation, page 8).

As noted above, poor self-regulation can affect working memory, and WM is a key factor in academic attainment. Difficulties with self-regulation, or inhibitory control, can also be related to attentional control, where the learner's impulsivity affects their ability to focus on a task or to maintain task focus long enough to see the task through to completion.

‍

‍

‍

7 Ways of Measuring Executive Functioning Skills 

Executive functioning skills are critical for managing thoughts, actions, and emotions to achieve goals. These cognitive abilities encompass attentional control, short-term memory, and the regulation of behavior, playing a pivotal role in both academic success and everyday life.

Measuring these skills can be challenging due to their complex nature, involving aspects of fluid intelligence and the capacity for selective attention. Various measures and assessments have been developed by psychologists and educational psychologists to evaluate these executive skills accurately, especially in contexts of child development and mental health conditions.

These tools are essential for identifying strengths and weaknesses in individuals, paving the way for targeted interventions.

1. Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF): A widely used questionnaire that assesses executive function behaviors in children and adults, focusing on everyday activities that require executive skills, including attentional control and behavior regulation.
2. Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST): This test evaluates an individual's ability to display flexibility in the face of changing schedules of reinforcement and is a measure of set-shifting, an important aspect of executive functioning.
3. Stroop Color and Word Test: A classic cognitive task that measures selective attention and the ability to process information under conditions of psychosocial stress, highlighting the individual's capacity to control impulsive responses.
4. Digit Span Tests: Part of the Wechsler scales, these tests assess short-term memory and attention, requiring individuals to recall sequences of numbers, testing both attentional control and working memory capacity.
5. Tower of London (TOL): Designed to assess planning and problem-solving abilities, this task requires the participant to move disks to match a goal state, testing strategic planning and inhibition control.
6. Trail Making Test (TMT): This assessment measures cognitive flexibility and attentional control, requiring individuals to connect a sequence of dots as quickly and accurately as possible, demonstrating the ability to switch attention between tasks.
7. Continuous Performance Tests (CPT): These tasks assess sustained and selective attention, crucial for diagnosing attentional disorders. By requiring participants to respond or inhibit responses to specific stimuli, CPTs evaluate the attentional control aspect of executive functioning.

Research and publications, such as those by Oxford University Press, continue to explore and validate these measures, contributing to our understanding of executive functioning and its impact on child development and mental health conditions.

‍

‍

‍

Why Is Executive Function Important for Academic Success?

Executive function skills, particularly working memory, are stronger predictors of academic achievement than IQ scores. Students with well-developed executive functions can better plan assignments, manage their time, and adapt to new learning situations. These skills directly impact a student's ability to follow multi-step directions, complete long-term projects, and succeed across all subject areas.

The three core EF areas are all important for teaching and learning. As noted earlier, working memory is a key predictor of future academic attainment. Poor self-regulation leads to impulsive trial-and-error approaches to learning, where the learner's response might be rapid and not well thought out.

Cognitive flexibility helps learners to find other ways of solving problems.....rather than repeating previously unsuccessful attempts.

There is no a condition called 'Executive Function disorder' with a set of diagnostic criteria.  It is more likely that educators and parents notice the absence of EF, where the learner presents with some or all of the following:

• Poor memory
• Disorganised
• Off-topic
• Can’t seem to put the brakes on
• Poor task focus

However, it is also important to rule out other underlying difficulties especially ACEs (adverse childhood experiences) or DLD (developmental language disorder), that might account for the difficulties that the learner is presenting with.

In addition, some neurodiverse conditions such as an autistic spectrum condition are associated with EF difficulties. 

EF can be a helpful 'lens' to help reframe some of the challenges that learners experience. For example, in the area of SEMH difficulties, a pupil acts in what might seem to be in an inconsequential manner and who does things to annoy others might be experiencing EF difficulties which means that they find it hard to put the brakes on. EF difficulties might be the reason why some learners need constant nagging and reminders to organise themselves.

There is not one approach or intervention that will 'fix' EF.  Executive Function skills are complex and interrelated, so it can be difficult to single out specific elements. Wave 1 Universal Quality First Teaching is a useful means of supporting EF on a day-to-day basis. The following bullet points suggest what an EF-friendly classroom might involve:

• Modelling
• Interactive
• Open-ended questions
• A focus on how as well as what (process as well as content)
• Learning objectives are not just written on the board but are discussed explicitly, making links to previous learning
• Step-by-step instructions
• Explicit organisational strategies
• Encourage reflection and taking time (self-regulation)

Dr Jane Yeomans is an independent Educational Psychologist based in the West Midlands. She offers a wide range of face-to-face and online training for teachers, teaching assistants and psychologists, including courses and workshops about Executive Function and cognitive thinking skills. 

‍

‍

‍

What Resources Help Teachers Learn More About Executive Function?

The Harvard Center for the Developing Child provides comprehensive research and practical guides on executive function development in children. Additional resources include educational psychology journals focusing on working memory, self-regulation strategies, and cognitive flexibility interventions. Professional development workshops and online courses specifically designed for educators offer hands-on training in implementing executive function support in classrooms.

Here are five key studies focusing on executive function skills and their implications:

1. Executive functions by A. Diamond (2014): This study outlines the core executive functions (EFs) as inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, crucial for resisting temptations, staying focused, and adapting to changes. It addresses controversies like the relation between EFs and fluid intelligence, and highlights the impact of social, emotional, and physical health on cognitive health, emphasizing that EFs can be improved with practice.
2. Executive function: Reflection, iterative reprocessing, complexity, and the developing brain by P. Zelazo (2015): This article describes EF and its development through the Iterative Reprocessing model, highlighting reflection as the basis for attention control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control. It suggests that improved reflection and rule use can enhance EF and theory of mind.
3. Executive function in the first three years of life: precursors, predictors and patterns by Alexandra Hendry et al. (2016): This review identifies early precursors and predictors of EF, emphasizing the importance of attention control, self-regulation, processing speed, and cognitive flexibility in the development of EF during the first three years of life.
4. Effects of the FITKids Randomized Controlled Trial on Executive Control and Brain Function by C. Hillman et al. (2014): This study examines the impact of a physical activity intervention on preadolescent children's executive control and brain function, finding improvements in fitness, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and attentional resources, demonstrating a causal effect of physical activity on executive control.
5. The Effect of Physical Activity Interventions on Children's Cognition and Metacognition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis by C. Álvarez‐Bueno et al. (2017): This systematic review and meta-analysis assess the effect of physical activity interventions on children's and adolescents' cognition and metacognition, finding benefits across several domains, including core executive functions and higher-level executive functions.

These studies collectively emphasize the significance of executive function skills across various stages of child development, their relationship with physical activity, and the potential for targeted interventions to improve these crucial cognitive abilities.

‍

‍

Frequently Asked Questions

What is executive function and why is it called the brain's 'air traffic control' system?

Executive function consists of processes that help individuals manage everyday life, with the Harvard Center for the Developing Child comparing it to an 'air traffic control' system where we plan, organise and manage ourselves. Like an air traffic controller coordinating aeroplanes or a conductor guiding an orchestra, executive function helps coordinate our mental processes to achieve future goals rather than relying on intuition alone.

‍

‍

What are the three core areas of executive function that teachers should focus on?

The three core areas are working memory (holding and manipulating information in your head), self-regulation (controlling attention, behaviour, and thoughts), and cognitive flexibility (adjusting approaches and seeing problems from different perspectives). These skills work together in an integrated way, so it's important not to try to separate them but rather help students develop all three simultaneously.

‍

‍

How can teachers practically promote executive function development in their daily lessons?

Teachers can incorporate working memory exercises, self-regulation activities, and cognitive flexibility tasks into daily lessons using visual schedules and teaching students to break complex tasks into steps. Consistent routines, explicit instruction in planning and organisation skills, and practising switching between different types of activities are particularly effective strategies.

‍

‍

Why is working memory considered more important than IQ for predicting academic success?

Research by Alloway and Alloway (2010) found that working memory at the start of formal education is a more powerful predictor of subsequent academic success than IQ. This is because working memory enables students to hold information in their heads and manipulate it, which is crucial for learning across all subjects and maintaining focus on academic tasks.

‍

‍

What is the difference between 'hot' and 'cold' executive function, and why does this matter for teachers?

Hot executive functions involve high emotional content where inhibiting emotional responses is important, whilst cold executive functions are emotionally neutral tasks like planning and thinking. Understanding this difference helps teachers recognise when students need support managing emotions versus when they need help with cognitive planning tasks.

‍

‍

How does poor self-regulation sabotage learning in the classroom?

Poor self-regulation prevents students from overriding immediate impulses to achieve long-term academic goals, leading them to jump in with ill-thought-out responses rather than attending properly to tasks. This impulsive behaviour challenges working memory and prevents the cognitive flexibility needed for effective problem-solving and learning.

‍

‍

At what age do executive function skills begin to develop, and when should teachers start focusing on them?

Young children begin developing executive function skills early, with research showing that the ability to inhibit responses at age 4 correlates with later attainment outcomes. Teachers should focus on these skills from the early years, as there is a growing research base documenting the important relationship between executive function and young children's early academic outcomes.

‍

‍