Understanding Cultural Capital in the Classroom: Bourdieu’s Framework for Equity

As educators, we often ask ourselves: Why do some students thrive while others struggle, even when given the same resources? Pierre Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital offers a powerful lens to explore this question. It helps us reflect on how our teaching practices can either reinforce or challenge social inequalities, and how we can better support all learners in our classrooms.

Who Was Pierre Bourdieu?

Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002) was a French sociologist whose work has had a profound impact on the sociology of education. He explored how social structures and institutions, particularly schools, contribute to the reproduction of social inequality within society, calling his theory social reproduction. His theories have gained renewed relevance as policy makers and educators strive to create inclusive and equitable learning environments within formal education systems.

Bourdieu's work centres around the idea that individuals possess different forms of capital. These take the form of resources that can be used to gain advantage in society. These include:

Economic Capital: Financial resources and material wealth.

Social Capital: Networks, relationships, and social connections.

Cultural Capital: Knowledge, skills, education, qualifications and cultural experiences.

He also introduced the concepts of habitus and field, which help explain how individuals navigate social spaces and how power dynamics play out within them. He argued that depending on how much capital an individual had would determine how they move between habitus and fields.

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Understanding Capital in Education

Economic Capital

Economic capital refers to financial assets and material resources. In education, this can influence access to quality schooling, private tutoring, extracurricular activities, and educational materials. Students from high-income families may attend prestigious private schools, have access to personal tutors, and participate in enriching activities such as music lessons, sports clubs, or international travel. These experiences can enhance their learning and give them an edge in classroom discussions and assessments.

Consider two students preparing for university entrance exams. One has access to paid coaching, study guides, and a quiet study space at home. The other shares a room with siblings, has limited internet access, and relies solely on school-provided resources. The disparity in economic capital directly affects their chances of success and future employment opportunities. Developing metacognition can help mitigate some of these disadvantages by teaching students how to learn more effectively.

Social Capital

Social capital involves the relationships and networks that provide support and opportunities. In educational settings, this might include parental involvement, mentorship, or connections to influential individuals. Often economic capital enables individuals to have more social capital as they network with a wider range of people and social situations.

A student whose parents are history teachers may benefit from guidance on navigating the school system, understanding academic expectations, and accessing resources. Their social network provides them with insider knowledge that others may lack. A student who is part of a community organisation or youth club may develop leadership skills and gain access to scholarships or internships through those connections. Building oracy skills in the classroom can help all students develop the communication abilities needed to build their own social capital.

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Cultural Capital

Cultural capital is perhaps the most complex and influential in educational contexts as it has an impact on social capital and can be determined by economic capital. Bourdieu categorised it into three forms:

Embodied Cultural Capital: Personal traits such as language proficiency, confidence, and mannerisms. These may be determined by cultural habitus but can be changed with exposure to different social contexts or specific language input, such as hearing different dialects.

Objectified Cultural Capital: Physical objects like books, musical instruments, or artworks. This is about having access to such resources in order to support development of social capital.

Institutionalised Cultural Capital: Formal qualifications and credentials.

A student who speaks with confidence and uses academic language may be perceived as more capable, even if their understanding is similar to peers who express themselves differently. This perception can influence teacher expectations and grading. Critical thinking skills should be assessed based on the quality of reasoning, not just the sophistication of expression.

A child who grows up in a household where classical music is played and discussed may find it easier to engage with music curriculum content. Their familiarity with cultural references gives them an advantage. Within schools, providing access to a wide vocabulary, use of dictionaries and glossaries are simple ways to enhance vocabulary and thereby start to negate disadvantage through vocabulary development strategies.

This is where Basil Bernstein's theory of language codes becomes relevant. Bernstein argued that schools favour the "elaborated code" used by middle-class students, characterised by explicit, structured language. In contrast, working-class students often use a "restricted code," which is more context-dependent and less valued in academic settings. This linguistic bias can disadvantage students whose speech patterns differ from the dominant norm through classroom discourse.

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Habitus and Field: Social Navigation

Bourdieu's concept of habitus refers to the deeply ingrained habits, dispositions, habits of mind, and ways of thinking shaped by our upbringing and social context. Habitus influences how individuals perceive the world and act within it. Habitus is predetermined at birth and cannot be influenced by the individual who is born into that habitus. While it can be seen as negative in that some social and cultural groups come from poor economic backgrounds and may not see the value of education, it can also bring a wealth of social and cultural differences and experiences to the classroom.

A student raised in a home where reading is encouraged may arrive at school with a rich vocabulary and confidence in literacy tasks. Their habitus aligns with the expectations of the school environment and therefore they thrive. A student from a migrant background may bring multilingual skills and diverse cultural perspectives, but if these are not recognised or valued by the school, they may feel alienated or misunderstood and will not thrive in the school system. Responsive teaching recognises and builds on the diverse strengths students bring to learning.

Fields describe social arenas, one of which could be schools. Within these fields, individuals compete for status, recognition, and resources. Each field has its own rules and power dynamics. In the classroom, these dynamics can manifest in subtle ways, such as who gets to speak, whose ideas are validated, and whose experiences are represented in the curriculum. Ideas such as decolonisation are important to consider to work towards a more equitable curriculum. Equally, having behaviour management strategies in place, thinking about how we organise the classroom, paying attention to Rosenshine's Principles, and considering cognitive load will all support equitable practice.

A student who challenges a teacher's authority may be seen as disruptive, but their behaviour could stem from a habitus shaped by different cultural norms around respect and communication within the subculture of science or other academic fields.

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Symbolic Capital: Recognition and Prestige

Symbolic capital refers to the prestige, honour, and recognition that individuals receive. In schools, symbolic capital can be gained through academic success, leadership roles, awards, or popularity. Teachers should consider each student's own merits to avoid a one-size-fits-all education system as described by Ken Robinson and Frank Coffield, ensuring that success of the individual, however small, is recognised and rewarded. Teachers should also be mindful that some students do not want praise or recognition for fear of being labelled or ostracised from their peers. Teachers should therefore be mindful of how praise is delivered and received by each individual student.

A student who wins a poetry competition may gain symbolic capital that boosts their confidence and status among peers. This recognition can motivate further engagement and achievement. A student who consistently receives praise from teachers may be seen as a role model, even if their academic performance is average. The symbolic capital they hold influences how others perceive and treat them. Assessment practices should recognise diverse forms of achievement.

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Social Reproduction in Schools

Bourdieu's social reproduction theory argues that schools often reinforce existing social inequalities by valuing the cultural capital of dominant groups. This can happen in various ways:

Curriculum Choices: A curriculum that focuses primarily on Western literature and history may marginalise students from diverse backgrounds. Presenting an alternative curriculum can be challenging, but supporting students to question what is presented to them supports the development of metacognition and higher-order thinking skills.

Assessment Methods: Standardised tests often favour students who are familiar with the language and format used. Research from the National Research Council and National Academy of Sciences emphasises the importance of transparent assessment practice.

Classroom Expectations: Behaviour norms and participation styles may reflect middle-class values, disadvantaging students with different cultural experiences. It is therefore important to form a set of classroom rules that has been developed collectively by students and the teacher. In doing so, ownership of the classroom norms and values reflects cultural and social backgrounds of students.

A student who has never visited a museum may struggle with a history assignment that assumes familiarity with artefacts and exhibitions. Their lack of cultural capital affects their ability to engage with the task. Curriculum sequencing should build foundational knowledge systematically.

A student who speaks a dialect or non-standard form of English may be corrected or penalised, even though their communication is effective within their community. Studies published in journals such as the Journal of Curriculum Studies and Science Education highlight these linguistic biases.

While qualitative research supports Bourdieu's ideas, large-scale quantitative studies have produced mixed results. Therefore, his framework should be used as a tool for reflection to understand the needs of students.

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What Can Teachers Do?

1. Recognise and Value Diverse Forms of Capital

Teachers can make a conscious effort to celebrate students' lived experiences, languages, and cultural knowledge. This involves:

• Encouraging students to share stories from their communities
• Validating different ways of speaking and expressing ideas
• Incorporating diverse cultural references into lessons

In a literature class, allowing students to analyse texts from their own cultural backgrounds can foster engagement and deepen understanding. Graphic organisers can help students structure their thinking regardless of their starting point.

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2. Challenge the Curriculum

Educators can advocate for a more inclusive curriculum that reflects multiple perspectives and histories. This might involve:

• Decolonising content by including voices from marginalised communities
• Teaching critical literacy skills to analyse bias and representation
• Using texts and materials that reflect students' identities

Including African, Asian, and Indigenous authors in English literature courses broadens students' horizons and validates their cultural heritage. The Thinking Framework provides tools for analysing diverse perspectives.

3. Create Inclusive Learning Environments

Inclusive classrooms are those where all students feel seen, heard, and valued. Strategies include:

• Employing differentiation strategies to meet diverse needs
• Using collaborative learning to build peer relationships
• Providing multiple ways for students to demonstrate understanding

Offering oral presentations, visual projects, and written assignments as assessment options allows students to showcase their strengths. Writer's Block tools support students in building ideas physically before writing.

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4. Encourage Critical Thinking

Teachers can foster critical thinking by promoting dialogue about power, privilege, and identity. This helps students understand the social forces that shape their experiences and empowers them to challenge injustice.

Discussing media representations of different social groups can help students recognise stereotypes and develop media literacy. Question generation strategies using thinking skills cards promote deeper inquiry.

Thinkers like Henry Giroux and Paulo Freire support this approach. Freire's concept of critical pedagogy emphasises education as a tool for liberation, encouraging students to question and transform the world around them.

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Final Thoughts

Understanding cultural capital helps teachers look beyond surface-level behaviours and academic performance. It encourages us to ask: What invisible barriers might this student be facing? By applying Bourdieu's framework, we can become more empathetic, inclusive, and effective educators.

Education is not just about delivering content; it's about shaping a more just and equitable society. When we recognise the diverse forms of capital our students bring, we create classrooms where everyone has the opportunity to thrive.

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Further Reading: Exploring Bourdieu’s Framework for Equity

If you’re ready to explore Bourdieu’s capital theory in greater depth, these five key studies offer insight into how cultural capital, social class, and educational systems shape social mobility and cultural reproduction. Each explores how cultural knowledge and institutionalised capital influence social distinction, symbolic violence, and the reproduction of social norms across societies.

1. Huang Hai-gan – The Equity in Higher Education under Bourdieu's Theory of Cultural Capital (2008)
Examines how differences in embodied cultural capital and social assets create inequity in China’s educational system, showing how social classes reproduce privilege through institutionalised cultural capital and cultural resources.

2. Truong Thi Hong Thuy – Effects of Cultural Capital on Children’s Educational Success: An Empirical Study of Vietnam Under the Shadow of Bourdieu’s Cultural Reproduction Theory (2020)
Demonstrates how children’s embodied cultural capital affects educational success, revealing how teachers’ perceptions and social relationships reinforce class-based inequality and restrict social mobility.

3. I. Košutić – The Role of Cultural Capital in Higher Education Access and Institutional Choice (2017)
Shows how embodied and institutionalised cultural capital predict educational choices in Croatia, linking social distinction and family background to educational aspirations within the social sciences.

4. Michael Tzanakis – Bourdieu’s Social Reproduction Thesis and The Role of Cultural Capital in Educational Attainment: A Critical Review of Key Empirical Studies (2011)
Critically reviews empirical evidence for cultural reproduction, questioning the universality of Bourdieu’s model and how cultural knowledge and social norms perpetuate class inequality in education.

5. Elisabeth Hultqvist & Ida Lidegran – The Use of ‘Cultural Capital’ in Sociology of Education in Sweden (2020)
Explores how meritocratic ideals mask symbolic violence within Sweden’s educational system, showing that cultural capital continues to mediate access to high culture and social mobility despite apparent equality.

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References

• Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education. Greenwood Press.
• Bernstein, B. (1971). Class, Codes and Control, Volume 1: Theoretical Studies Towards a Sociology of Language. Routledge.
• Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Continuum.
• National Research Council. (2001). Knowing What Students Know: The Science and Design of Educational Assessment. National Academy Press.
• Robinson, K. (2006). Do schools kill creativity? TED Talk.
• Wang Tie-qun. (2010). On Educational Equity of Pierre Bourdieu's Cultural Capital Theory. Educational Research.
• Huang Hai-gan. (2008). The Equity in Higher Education under Bourdieu's Theory of Cultural Capital. Higher Education Studies.
• Xiaowei Huang. (2019). Understanding Bourdieu: Cultural Capital and Habitus. Review of European Studies.
• Yuhan Dong. (2023). Understanding Social Justice and Equity in Chinese Exam-oriented Education. Educational Philosophy and Theory.