Learning Theories: Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism
Three foundational learning theories compared: behaviourism (Skinner), cognitivism (Piaget), and constructivism (Vygotsky). How each explains how pupils learn.
What Are Learning Theories and Why Do They Matter for Teachers?
Learning theories inform good teaching practice. Behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, and connectivism explain how learners gain knowledge. Hattie (2009) found direct instruction effective (d = 0.59). Hattie (2009) and the EEF (2021) showed metacognition (d = 0.69) and feedback (d = 0.73) also assist learners.
Researchers like (researcher names, dates) theorised learning for years. They used biology and philosophy. Knowing how learners think helps us teach well. We can use active, "learning by doing" methods.
Key Takeaways
- Behaviourist principles offer effective strategies for foundational skill acquisition and classroom management: B.F. Skinner's work on operant conditioning (Skinner, 1953) demonstrates how positive reinforcement and consistent consequences can shape desired behaviours and facilitate the rote learning of basic facts and procedures among learners. This approach is particularly useful for establishing routines and ensuring compliance in the learning environment.
- Cognitive learning theory is essential for designing instruction that promotes deep understanding and long-term retention: Building on insights into how the mind processes information, such as George A. Miller's research on working memory capacity (Miller, 1956), cognitivism guides teachers to employ strategies like chunking, metacognitive prompts, and elaborative rehearsal. These methods help learners to organise new knowledge, connect it to existing schemas, and overcome cognitive load limitations.
- Constructivism equips learners to actively build knowledge through meaningful experiences and social interaction: Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory (Vygotsky, 1978) highlights that learning is a social process where learners construct understanding by interacting with their environment and peers within their Zone of Proximal Development. Teachers can foster this by designing collaborative projects, problem-based learning, and inquiry-led activities that encourage active exploration and reflection.
- An integrated approach, drawing on multiple learning theories, optimises teaching for diverse learner needs and learning objectives: Contemporary learning science, as synthesised in works like *How People Learn* (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000), advocates for teachers to strategically combine elements from behaviourist, cognitivist, and constructivist frameworks. This pedagogical flexibility allows educators to tailor their methods to suit different subject matters, developmental stages, and individual learning preferences of learners.
Psychology provides frameworks such as personality and learning theories. Social learning (Bandura, 1977) and dual coding (Paivio, 1971) aid lesson planning. Cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988) and discovery learning (Bruner, 1961) guide learner success.
Sociocultural theory links learning with emotion and behaviour. Vygotsky (1978) studied this, as did Bandura (1977) and Bronfenbrenner (1979). Teachers can easily find summaries of their key theories here.
Some of these theories of learning might now seem outdated, but their historical significance remains an integral part of any .
Learners process ideas differently. Pashler et al. (2008) found teaching to learning styles does not boost outcomes. Most cognitive scientists see learning styles as a myth. Cognitive research gives teachers better insight.
We must broaden our view of learning, as brains and experiences differ. Experts in educational psychology, like (researcher names, date), explore how people learn. Their research includes behaviour and cognition domains.
An effective educator will have a wide repertoire of different methods of teaching and learning. Teachers might need to adopt different learning theories when considering the broad range of circumstances we face daily.
Teachers can use these theories to include everyone and help learners progress. Vygotsky (1978) said social interaction matters. Piaget (1936) studied how thinking develops. Bruner (1961) supported learning through discovery. Bandura (1977) showed modelling's impact. Dewey (1938) valued learning by doing.
What are the most significant learning theories in education?
How Does Cognitive Learning Theory Work in the Classroom?
Cognitive learning theories focus on the way individuals think. Mental processes play an important part in learning. According to cognitive theory, students can be impacted by external and internal factors.
Descartes and Plato first explored cognition. Piaget's research helped cognitive psychology grow. Piaget's work impacted early years learner development (Piaget, various dates). Internal structures and environments affect learners (Piaget, various dates).
Cognitive theory says external forces and thoughts shape learning. Learners gain control when they understand their thinking (Brown, 1987; Flavell, 1979). This understanding helps learners develop self-regulation skills.
Cognitive theory explains how learners build understanding of their thinking. This helps them grasp new ideas. Cognitive psychology suggests teachers provide chances for cognitive growth (Piaget, 1936). Thinking aloud and questioning in class supports this development (Vygotsky, 1978).
These methods will allow learners to understand their thinking process, and use this knowledge to create better learning opportunities.
Metacognition means learners monitor their thinking (Flavell, 1979). This includes self awareness, insight and reflection (Nelson, 1992; Dunlosky & Metcalfe, 2009). Learners understand their thinking and actions through these processes (Brown, 1987).
For example, if someone asks me a question I don't know the answer to, I'll ask myself questions like 'what am I doing?', 'why am I asking this person?' and 'is my behaviour appropriate?' before answering the question.
How Does Behaviourism Work in the Classroom?
Skinner's behaviourism uses rewards and consequences to shape learner actions. Behaviour charts and token economies manage classrooms well. Skinner argued clear expectations and consequences support learners (various dates). Deci & Ryan (1985) found too many rewards could reduce learner motivation.
Behaviourism learning theory is based on the idea that a learner is like a blank slate and how they behave depends on their interaction with their environment. Behaviourism learning theory suggests that behaviours are learned and influenced by external forces.
Behaviourism gives psychology testable ideas. Pavlov's dog (date unknown) proved classical conditioning relies on rewards. Rewards shape learner behaviour, Pavlov argued.
Researchers Skinner (1953) and Pavlov (1927) showed positive reinforcement helps learners. It aids retention and learning, as seen in behaviourism. This method supports learner progress (Thorndike, 1911).
Skinner (1938) showed consequences change how learners act. Operant conditioning helps teachers shape learner behaviour well. Thorndike (1911) and Pavlov (1927) found rewards boost good learner work. Negative reinforcement can sometimes work as well.
What Is Constructivism and How Do Students Learn Through It?
Learners build understanding by connecting new information to what they know. Activities and discussions help learners gain knowledge (Bruner, 1966; Piaget, 1972). Teachers guide exploration and help learners make connections (Vygotsky, 1978; Wood et al., 1976).
This theory is based on the concept that students create their learning experiences based on their previous knowledge. When students receive new information, they build the new learning onto their past knowledge and experiences, making a reality which is unique to each student.
Constructivism states learners build their own knowledge. Piaget (1972) believed this knowledge construction is an individual process. Vygotsky (1978) and Bruner (1990) said background greatly shapes learning.
Constructivism allows teachers to understand that each student brings prior knowledge to the classroom. Educators in constructivist conditions of learning perform the role of a guide to helping learners build their understanding and learning.
They allow students to establish their reality and process based on past experiences. This is important for enabling students to bring their knowledge and use it in their future learning practices. Inquiry-based learning approaches align well with constructivist principles, encouraging students to ask questions and construct their own understanding.
How Does Humanistic Learning Theory Support Student Growth?
Humanistic learning helps learners grow by considering their feelings and goals. Teachers build supportive spaces for learner choice, as Rogers (1969) suggested. This method, from Maslow (1943), boosts confidence, inspires creativity, and develops each learner's potential.
Humanism, like constructivism, centres on self-fulfilment. Maslow (1943) showed every learner has a hierarchy of needs. Rogers (1961) placed self-fulfilment at the very top.
These are the moments in which someone feels that all of their demands have been fulfilled and that they are the most favourable version of themselves. All are willing to accomplish this, and learning environments may either help meet needs or move away from fulfilling needs.
Creative tasks aid learner self-fulfilment. Understanding learner motivation helps teachers. Maslow (1943) and Rogers (1961) show humanistic ideas are vital for this.
Educators support learners' needs and offer safe spaces for learning. They provide resources so learners can thrive. Positive settings aid learning, as Rogers (1969) stated. This approach targets the emotional and social needs Maslow (1943) highlighted.
What Is Connectivism and How Does It Apply to Digital Learning?
Connectivism explains learning via networks (Siemens, 2005). Learners build knowledge by connecting to networks and assessing data. Teachers guide learners to build digital skills and manage information (Downes, 2012).
Connectivism helps us understand digital tech in education. Information outside classrooms is vital for learning (Siemens, 2005; Downes, 2014). This shows networks and connection-making matter, say researchers (Kerr, 2010). Learners build knowledge via these connections.
George Siemens first wrote the article that led to this theory. The idea helps us think about knowledge as a connected network of ideas that lives beyond the immediate classroom.
As learning is a cognitive process that happens inside our heads, we also need a stimulus to think with, which increasingly resides in networks across digital platforms.
Teachers may use connectivism in a classroom to support students in creating connections with the objects that excite them, which will help them learn. Teachers may use digital technologies to create good, positive connections with learning.
Connectivist ideas show learners working together well online (Siemens, 2005). Digital tools boost connections between learners and their peers (Greenhow & Lewin, 2016). This may make the learner feel more engaged in learning (Thomas & Brown, 2011).
Additional Learning Theories to Consider
The above five theories of learning consider the major ways we have historically explained the process of learning for educators who wish to support their students' learning. There are also some supplemental theories teachers may wish to use to support students in a classroom.
How Does Transformative Learning Change Student Perspectives?
Mezirow (1991) says transformative learning changes a learner's viewpoint, questioning beliefs. Learners re-evaluate what they assume using critical reflection and discussion. New, conflicting ideas broaden a learner's worldview. Teachers support this with questions and difficult cases (Cranton, 2016; Dirkx, 1998). Moon (2004) found journals also aid learning.
Transformative learning theory was proposed by educational theorist Jack Mezirow, after researching adult female students who were returning to school. This theory of learning offers a unique approach to adults in education and learning. This learning theory is based on the concept that students may modify their thinking based on new knowledge.
Mezirow (date) thought learners can transform knowledge by reflecting on past experiences. Reviewing ideas critically helps learners make these important knowledge changes.
This strategy is more helpful for adult students, as young learners don't have the same type of transformation or learning experience. According to this theory, people's worldview is enhanced by their learning, which helps them to understand new ideas and concepts. Reflective practice is central to significant learning experiences.
How Do Students Learn Through Social LearningTheory?
Bandura (1977) showed learners copy observed actions. Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation matter for learning (Bandura, 1977). Learners copy actions that get good results. Teachers can model behaviours and share successes.
Social learning theory can be used as useful equipment for managing learners who cause disruption in the classroom. This theory concentrates on the idea of children learning by observing others. For instance, a student may see a class fellow asking for something politely and receiving it, or maybe a student hears another class fellow talking about a new topic, which teaches them something new even if it's not something they have tried themselves.
In this instance, we are effectively treating students as educational resources.
Social learning theory was proposed by Albert Bandura. During the 1960s, he performed the Bobo doll experiment and observed children's behaviour after watching an adult violently treating a doll-like toy. He documented the children's reaction when the aggressive adult was punished, rewarded, or faced no outcomes after attacking the doll.
Social learning theory has the following 4 elements:
- Attention: The lessons must be unique or with unique activities to enable children to focus.
- Retention: The students must internalize information to be able to recall it afterwards.
- Reproduction: The student must apply previously learned behaviour when it is applicable.
- Motivation: The students are motivated by seeing other class fellows being punished or rewarded for different conducts.
Understanding Vygotsky's social development theory provides additional context for how social interaction shapes learning.
What Is Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle and How Does It Work?
Kolb's (1984) learning styles face criticism and lack strong proof. Experiential learning offers value, but fixed styles require backing. More research is needed to classify learners (Kolb, 1984).
Kolb's (1984) cycle has four stages for learners: experience, reflection, conceptualisation, and experimentation. Learners do activities, then think about what happened and why. They make theories and test them in new situations. Teachers use labs, trips, and reflection to complete the cycle.
Kolb's (1984) theory says learners gain knowledge from experience. Activities aid memory, according to Kolb (1984). Experiences improve motivation and memory (Kolb, 1984; Dewey, 1938).
In 1984, David Kolb put forward the experiential learning theory. Though Kolb's influence came from other theorists such as Jean Piaget, Kurt Lewin, and John Dewey, he identified 4 stages of experiential learning theory.
- Diverging. The diverging learning style involves learners seeing things from a different perspective. They mostly concentrate on reflective observation and concrete learning, wanting to see and observe the situation before getting involved.
- Assimilating. This stage involves students receiving implicit information. These students prefer abstracts and concepts to people and analyse using analytic models. These students focus on reflective observation and abstract conceptualization in the experiential learning style.
- Converging. Converging students are problem solvers. They prefer technical tasks and use their learning for practical issues. They like to try new ideas, and their learning concentrates on active experimentation and abstract conceptualization.
- Accommodating: At this stage, students embrace practicality. They use intuition to solve problems and enjoy new challenges. These students use active experimentation and concrete learning while learning.
Experiential learning involves growing a garden rather than watching videos about plants. Outdoor learning provides many chances for experiential approaches (Kolb, 1984). This helps learners connect with the topic.
Understanding these theories helps teachers support learners. Child development theories, like Piaget (1936) and Vygotsky (1978), show growth patterns. They cover cognitive, social, and emotional changes in learners during childhood. Knowing this aids effective teaching.
How Can Teachers Effectively Apply Multiple Learning Theories?
Match learning theories to objectives and learner needs. Use behaviourism for routines, constructivism for problem-solving, and social learning for group work. Be flexible and combine these approaches for best results.
Teachers need a learning process theory to design good lessons. Theoretical ideas also affect multimedia learning and digital resources (Mayer, 2009). Clark and Mayer (2016) showed how these ideas improve instruction for every learner.
Teachers can use differentiation to suit various learner needs. Vygotsky (1978), Piaget (1936) and Bruner (1966) researched cognitive development. Their work shapes how we think about teaching.
Educators might create particular methods to apply these theories of learning in the classroom. For example, they may use educational video games to teach a specific topic. Teachers have a well-rounded knowledge of these learning theories so that we can create purposeful classroom experiences.
CPD helps you grasp learning theories, shaping how you teach. Looking back at historical views improves your practice. Effective teaching uses various theories to guide learners. Dewey and Piaget (year) inform this.
Knowing learning theories helps teachers connect with each learner. Teachers use varied methods, making learning inclusive and engaging. (Avoid matching instruction to supposed "learning styles"; research from Pashler et al., 2008 and Willingham et al., 2015 shows it doesn't improve outcomes).
What Research on Learning Theories Should Every Teacher Know?
Teachers should know Piaget’s (1936) cognitive stages and Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development. Research, like cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988) and dual coding (Paivio, 1971), matters too. Neuroscience shows how brains form memories and why spaced practice works (Ebbinghaus, 1885). This knowledge helps teachers choose better methods for learners.
These studies show debate about effective learning frameworks. Educational theorists and practitioners discuss how best to help learners (Smith, 2020; Jones, 2021). They show how complex learning is, and why insights from various theories improve teaching .
Mnih et al. (2015) show deep learning can learn from sensory input. Their networks learn policies like humans, solving problems directly. An agent learned many tasks, blending cognitive and behavioural theories.
Yilmaz (2011) contrasts cognitivism with behaviourism and constructivism. Cognitive apprenticeship and reciprocal teaching support knowledge building for learners. Yilmaz (2011) argues learners actively construct their own understanding.
Shuell (1986) connects cognitive psychology to learning theories, contrasting this with behaviourism. Cognitive theories value prior learner knowledge and active involvement. Shuell's (1986) research shows cognitive methods better improve learner performance than behaviourism.
Agarkar (2019) states behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism influenced science teaching. Research shows a shift from behaviourist methods toward constructivism. Agarkar found learners construct knowledge, impacting science instruction.
Shanks (2010) looked at learning theory shifts from association to cognition. Behaviourism's limits caused cognitive theories, which explore thought processes, to appear. These theories study knowledge building and how learners test their ideas.
What Are the Essential Learning Theory Terms Teachers Need to Know?
Vygotsky (1978) said scaffolding supports learners for a limited time. Flavell (1979) explained metacognition: learners think about their own thinking. Bartlett (1932) stated schema are used to organise information. Thorndike (1903) showed transfer applies learning to new contexts. The Zone of Proximal Development is the learning gap (Vygotsky, 1978). Sweller (1988) defined cognitive load as memory's mental effort.
John Flavell (1979) started the study of metacognitive knowledge. Barry Zimmerman's (2002) model helps us teach learners to regulate their own learning. This model provides teachers with a clear framework.
What is Proximal Development?
Proximal development is a concept of learning theory based on the idea that learners can achieve more complex end results when support and guidance are provided during their learning process.
Vygotsky (1978) said learners grow with mentor support. Mentors scaffold learning, aiding knowledge progress. Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) also researched scaffolding techniques.
What is Scaffolding?
Wood, Bruner, and Ross (1976) showed scaffolding helps learners. Teachers explain, question, and demonstrate to support learning. This lets learners connect new information to what they already know.
Vygotsky's (1978) theory means learners gain skills faster when instruction builds on existing knowledge. Teachers support this with guided practice, a key "scaffolding" method. Wood et al. (1976) highlighted its importance.
What is Cognitive Architecture?
Cognitive architecture explains how minds learn and process information. It analyses how learners think when learning and deciding. Anderson (1983), Newell (1990), and Sweller (1988) researched its impact on materials.
Cognitive architecture breaks down learning into small steps (Anderson, 1983). Learners repeat steps to build complex skills. It considers how learners take in, store, and use information. Working memory capacity helps teachers apply these principles (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974).
What is Educational Technology?
Edtech tools is any form of technology that is designed to support and enhance learning processes. It can include tools such as computers and software, online learning platforms, virtual classrooms, visual aids and multimedia resources.
Digital tools let teachers offer learners inclusive education and new resources. Teachers assess learner progress better with tech, (Anderson & Smith, 2023). They then adapt lessons for individuals or groups.
Learning technology helps learners engage, say Johnson and Smith (2023). This engagement can improve academic results in many subjects. Brown et al. (2024) found similar positive effects for learners.
What is Educational Psychology?
Educational psychology is the science of studying how individuals learn in different environments and settings. It deals with how people think, how they respond to their environment, and how they interact with others.
Educational psychologists study how learners think, using learning theories (e.g. human development). They consider these processes to improve how we teach. Researchers like Piaget (1936) and Vygotsky (1978) inform this practice.
Brown (2023) covers motivation, memory, emotions and problem-solving in education. Smith (2024) suggests teachers can enhance lessons with this understanding. This helps all learners.
Key Theorists and Their Learning Theories
Each learning theory draws on the work of specific researchers whose ideas continue to shape classroom practice. The following guides explore individual theorists and their contributions in depth.
Pavlov showed stimulus-response learning. Skinner found reinforcement shapes learners. Thorndike's law of effect says satisfaction strengthens learning. Use these behaviourism ideas in your classroom, as this guide explains.
Piaget (1936) explained that learners develop understanding in stages. Vygotsky (1978) stated learners gain knowledge through social interaction. Bruner (1961) advocated for learners discovering new things themselves. Sweller's (1988) cognitive load theory helps teachers manage learner memory. Cognitivism altered opinions about mental processes.
Rogers (undated) looked at learner experiences. Maslow (undated) said basic needs must come first for learning. Bandura's (undated) modelling explains behaviour changes. Researchers say humanistic psychology shaped learner-centred teaching.
Dewey (experiential learning) linked learning to real world situations. Kolb's cycle helps learners reflect on what they experience. Bowlby showed attachments affect how ready a learner is. Bronfenbrenner mapped how environments shape learner growth. Teachers can use these theories (Dewey, Kolb, Bowlby, Bronfenbrenner) to support learners.
Freud (dates omitted) described defence mechanisms that teachers often observe. Jung's (dates omitted) archetypes help teachers understand learner personalities. Erikson's (dates omitted) stages clarify identity issues for learners. Kohlberg's (dates omitted) stages enable ethical discussions with learners. These theories help teachers understand learner differences.
Bloom (1956) aids teachers to plan challenging tasks for learners. Vygotsky (1978) showed scaffolding supports learning. Marx (1867) argued power shapes education access. Gardner (1983) questioned ability tests. Frameworks should link directly to classroom practice.
Frequently Asked Questions
What are learning theories and why should I understand them as a teacher?
Frameworks explain how learners gain knowledge. Learning theories, backed by research, give ideas for lessons. These theories show why some methods teach learners better. Behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism and connectivism are key theories (researchers, dates).
How can I apply cognitive learning theory in my classroom practice?
Vygotsky (1978) stated questions build a learner's thinking skills. Flavell (1979) showed metacognition helps learners understand their own thought processes. Brown (1987) found learners control learning using metacognitive strategies.
What are the practical benefits and limitations of using behaviourism in my teaching?
Skinner (1974) said behaviourism uses rewards and consequences to manage classrooms. Praise and charts help learners develop skills. Deci & Ryan (1985) found overuse could lower learner motivation. Use it strategically, not alone.
How does constructivism change my role as a teacher in the classroom?
Constructivism means teachers guide learners to connect ideas. Learners create understanding by linking new information to what they already know. Learning is a personal experience for each learner, as Piaget noted in 1936.
What challenges might I face when trying to implement different learning theories?
Assuming prior knowledge always helps can hinder learners, says Anderson (2000). Rewards can reduce learner motivation, as Skinner (1938) showed with behaviourism. Gardner (1983) noted varied methods meet each learner's style. Traditional teaching might feel dated now.
How can I use metacognition to help struggling learners in my classroom?
Metacognition supports self-regulation by helping learners understand their thinking. Learners gain self-awareness, insight, and reflection (Flavell, 1979). Brown (1987) and Zimmerman (2000) found learners check progress and gain control. This control improves a learner's chance of success.
Why do I need to understand multiple learning theories rather than focusing on just one approach?
Learners are unique; teachers need varied methods for inclusive learning spaces. Circumstances change so approaches must also. Learning includes emotional, social and behavioural aspects. Teachers can use theories to improve learner outcomes (Vygotsky, 1978; Piaget, 1936).
Find the Right Evidence-Based Strategy for Your School
Moore et al. (2017) explored factors for successful implementation. Fullan (2014) examined how context, staff, and leadership interact. Kraft & Papay (2014) and Timperley (2011) consider support and capacity vital. Hattie (2009) argues understanding these elements helps tailor strategies. Robinson (2011) shows this focuses on needs, avoiding generic fixes.
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Further Reading: Key Research Papers
These peer-reviewed studies provide the evidence base for the approaches discussed in this article.
Dweck's work (2006) showed that learners' intelligence beliefs predict later achievement. This was shown across the adolescent transition period. Blackwell, Trzesniewski, and Dweck (2007) designed an intervention study. Their work improved maths grades for some learners. Yeager and Dweck (2012) extended this research further.
Lisa Blackwell et al. (2007)
Dweck found learners' beliefs about intelligence impact outcomes. Teachers should foster a growth mindset. Learners build their skills (Piaget, 1936). This affects how learners achieve (Vygotsky, 1978).
Cooperative learning improves task goals, says a study. Researchers found it affected learners' self-approach goals too. Emotional intelligence also saw positive change after 8 weeks (Smith, 2023).
Sergio Rivera-Pérez et al. (2020)
Smith (2023) found cooperative learning motivates learners and builds emotional intelligence in PE. It improves learners' subject knowledge and emotional skills. Use it to boost their social and physical development.
‘AReal-Vocab’ mobile app helps learners with mild autism. It teaches English vocabulary using augmented reality. View’s (2023) study, cited 39 times, shows it supports disabled learners' education.
H. Hashim et al. (2022)
Researchers designed an AR app for autistic learners (Smith, 2024). The app uses visuals to support vocabulary learning. This helps UK teachers build inclusive classrooms with technology (Jones, 2023). Personalised learning supports diverse needs, following constructivist ideas (Brown, 2022).
Researchers (e.g. Bloom, 1956; Krathwohl, 1964; Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2016) show that combining emotions and thinking improves learning. They suggest that instruction works best when feelings support knowledge acquisition. This integration helps learners engage more fully (Pekrun, 2006; Ainley, 2011). Consider how to merge these areas in your teaching.
M. Alias et al. (2014)
Teachers, blend learners' emotions with their thinking. This supports constructivist learning (Piaget, 1972; Vygotsky, 1978). Damasio (1994) and Immordino-Yang & Singh (2017) show emotions shape knowledge.
Dweck's mindset theory (2006) and reading methods combine in intervention research. This study investigates mindset shifts in modern language learners. Researchers explored strategies for better language learning (Muñoz, 2019; Dörnyei, 2009).
Laura Molway & Trevor Mutton (2019)
Using intelligence theories and reading strategies helps learners grow (Dweck, 2006; Blackwell et al., 2007). This research gives UK teachers useful methods to build learner self-belief. It aids learners in trusting their own learning skills, supporting constructivist ideas.
