Tests for Dyspraxia: A Teacher's Guide
Learn to identify dyspraxia signs in your classroom and discover which assessment pathways lead to proper diagnosis and support for struggling pupils.
What Is Dyspraxia?
Dyspraxia (DCD) affects motor skills, not intelligence (Nicolson & Fawcett, 2007). Learners know what they want to do, but struggle with movements. The brain sends unclear or late signals (Kirby et al., 2011). Actions require focus, unlike other learners (Zwicker et al., 2018).
Developmental Coordination Disorder affects 5-6% of UK learners. This means most classes will have one or two learners with DCD. Boys get diagnosed more often than girls. Research suggests this is referral bias (Barnett et al., 2020). Girls' DCD often appears as avoidance or quietness. This differs from the clumsiness prompting boys' referrals (Kirby et al., 2011).
Dyspraxia is lifelong, but support helps learners manage. Early identification and targeted intervention are vital. Teachers spotting signs are key (Nicolson & Fawcett, 2011; Kirby & Drew, 2003).
Key Takeaways
- Early teacher observation is crucial for identifying learners at risk of dyspraxia. Teachers are often the first to notice persistent difficulties in motor coordination and organisation that impact academic and daily tasks, prompting further investigation (Kirby, 2007). Recognising these signs early can facilitate timely assessment and intervention, significantly improving a learner's educational outcomes and self-esteem.
- A definitive diagnosis of dyspraxia necessitates a comprehensive, multidisciplinary assessment. This process typically involves paediatricians, occupational therapists, and educational psychologists, utilising standardised tests to evaluate motor skills, coordination, and impact on daily functioning (Barnett & Wilson, 2005). Teachers contribute vital observational data to this diagnostic pathway, informing the specialists' evaluations.
- Dyspraxia, while distinct, frequently co-occurs with other neurodevelopmental conditions such as dyslexia and ADHD. Understanding these co-occurring difficulties is essential for teachers to implement comprehensive support strategies that address the full spectrum of a learner's needs (Kaplan et al., 1998). This integrated approach ensures that interventions are tailored and effective, preventing potential misinterpretations of a learner's challenges.
- Effective classroom support for learners with dyspraxia relies on evidence-based strategies that target motor planning and organisational skills. Interventions should focus on task modification, explicit instruction, and opportunities for practice in a supportive environment, rather than simply expecting improvement (Green et al., 2005). Such targeted approaches help learners develop compensatory strategies and improve their participation and independence within the school setting.
Developmental Coordination Disorder often occurs with needs like dyslexia (Nicolson & Fawcett, 2007). Learners with one condition may also have DCD (Kirby et al., 2008). Understanding dyspraxia helps teachers spot difficulties beyond one diagnosis (Zwicker et al., 2018).
Signs of Dyspraxia by Age
Dyspraxia appears differently as a learner grows (Sumner, 2021). Teachers must watch for age-appropriate indicators across key stages (Kirby, 2011).
Early Years (EYFS, ages 3 to 5)
In early years, dyspraxia shows as developmental delays. Learners might walk late and struggle on climbing frames. They may find scissors, pencils, buttons, zips, and shoelaces hard. Learners could avoid construction toys and jigsaws. Verbal dyspraxia affects clear speech production. (Kirby, 2011; Dewey et al, 2007).
Fine motor skills impact early learning. A teacher may see a learner avoid climbing. The learner might grip a pencil with their fist, unlike peers. They may struggle to catch a ball or become upset changing for PE.
Key Stage 1 (ages 5 to 7)
By KS1, the gap between a dyspraxic child and their peers becomes more visible. Handwriting is often the most obvious difficulty: letters are poorly formed, inconsistently sized, and produced slowly with visible effort. The child may press too hard or too lightly on the paper. Sitting still at a desk is exhausting because maintaining posture requires the same motor planning that other children do without thinking.
Learners may struggle to ride a bike or scooter. They may have problems with PE, like hopping or balancing. Messy eating and losing belongings is common. They might struggle with instructions needing physical steps (Cousins, 2015). Poor task planning affects motor skills development (Kirby & Drew, 2003). This can affect learners' participation (Cairney et al., 2005).
Key Stage 2 (ages 7 to 11)
In KS2, academic demands increase and dyspraxia creates wider consequences. The child may avoid writing tasks entirely, not because they lack ideas but because the physical act of writing is so demanding that they cannot think and write simultaneously. This is a cognitive load problem: the motor task of forming letters consumes working memory that should be available for composing sentences.
Learners may show social issues. Breaktime games become awkward. Group tasks like science, art, or DT are stressful. Learners avoid PE, "forget" kit, or claim illness. These behaviours are coping, not flaws (Ball, 2024).
Learners in Key Stage 2 often struggle with organisation. They may have trouble with homework (Alloway & Gathercole, 2006). Managing timetables and packing bags can prove hard. Moving between classes also presents difficulty; these tasks involve motor planning. Dyspraxic learners find such tasks very challenging (Kirby & Drew, 2003).
Dyspraxia, Dyslexia, and Dyscalculia Compared
Teachers mistake these conditions due to shared traits. They all cause poor grades, frustration, and avoidance behaviours. (Researcher names and dates) say accurate identification matters. Support differs because the root causes are unique.
| Feature | Dyspraxia (DCD) | Dyslexia | Dyscalculia |
|---|---|---|---|
| Primary difficulty | Motor coordination and planning | Phonological processing and word decoding | Number sense and mathematical reasoning |
| Affects handwriting | Yes: poor letter formation, inconsistent sizing, slow speed | Sometimes: letter reversals, spelling errors | Rarely: only when writing numbers |
| Affects reading | Indirectly: tracking text across the page can be difficult | Yes: decoding, fluency, and comprehension | No, unless the text contains numerical information |
| Affects PE and sport | Yes: catching, throwing, balancing, team sports | No | No |
| Affects daily living | Yes: dressing, eating, personal care, organisation | Mainly time management and written communication | Money handling, time-telling, measurement |
| Prevalence | 5 to 6% of children | 10 to 15% of the population | 3 to 6% of the population |
| Diagnosed by | Occupational therapist, physiotherapist, or paediatrician | Educational psychologist or specialist teacher | Educational psychologist with maths assessment specialism |
| Co-occurrence | Frequently co-occurs with dyslexia (up to 50%) | Frequently co-occurs with DCD, ADHD | Often co-occurs with dyslexia and ADHD |
The overlap between conditions is significant. Research by Kaplan et al. (1998) found that approximately 50% of children with DCD also meet criteria for dyslexia or ADHD. This means a learner referred for one condition should be screened for others. A child who appears to have "just" handwriting difficulties may have underlying motor coordination problems (DCD), phonological processing difficulties (dyslexia), or both.
The Assessment Pathway
No single dyspraxia test exists. Diagnosis needs many professionals. They check the learner's past, motor skills now, and challenges in daily life (Kirby et al., 2008; Missiuna et al., 2006; Zwicker et al., 2018). They also examine how difficulties affect learning (Nicolson & Fawcett, 2011).
Step 1: Teacher and parent concerns. Most referrals begin with a teacher or parent noticing persistent motor coordination difficulties. The school should document specific observations: which tasks the learner struggles with, how their performance compares to peers, what strategies have been tried, and whether the difficulties are consistent across settings. This evidence forms the basis of a referral.
GPs can refer learners to paediatricians or occupational therapy (OT). Schools also refer learners to OT in many areas. The SENCO manages school referrals, providing teacher evidence. (Step 2; adapted from Case-Smith & O'Brien, 2015; Law et al., 2021; Missiuna et al., 2015).
Occupational therapists assess learners' motor skills (Law et al., 2022). They use UK tools for this structured assessment. Popular assessments are BOT-2 (Bruininks & Bruininks, 2005) and Movement ABC-2 (Henderson et al., 2007).
- Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement ABC-2): The most widely used standardised test for identifying DCD in children aged 3 to 16. It assesses manual dexterity (posting coins, threading lace, drawing trail), aiming and catching (catching bean bag, throwing at target), and static and active balance (one-leg stand, walking heel-to-toe, hopping). Scores below the 5th percentile indicate significant motor difficulty; scores between the 5th and 15th percentile suggest the child is at risk.
- Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2): A comprehensive assessment covering fine motor precision, fine motor integration, manual dexterity, bilateral coordination, balance, running speed and agility, upper-limb coordination, and strength. It provides a detailed profile of motor strengths and weaknesses.
- Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (Beery VMI): Assesses the ability to integrate visual perception and motor coordination by asking the child to copy geometric forms of increasing complexity. This test is particularly relevant for handwriting difficulties.
DCD diagnosis needs four criteria from the DSM-5. First, motor coordination is below what's expected (APA, 2013). Second, motor issues affect daily life or schoolwork. Third, symptoms began early in development. Finally, difficulties aren't due to other conditions.
After assessment, the OT's report gives specific home and school recommendations. These often include classroom changes, intervention programmes, and teacher/parent strategies. The report can support EHC plan applications if the learner needs significant extra funding.
Classroom Support Strategies
Research by Smythe and Stirling (2003) and Kirby (2011) shows simple support works best. Teachers can help dyspraxic learners with small classroom changes. These adjustments often assist other learners too, say Nicolson and Fawcett (2007).
Handwriting and written output. Reduce the physical demand of writing wherever possible. Allow the learner to use a laptop or tablet for extended writing tasks. Provide lined paper with wider spacing, and consider a writing slope (a slanted board) that improves wrist position and reduces fatigue. Teach keyboard skills explicitly, as typing becomes the primary writing method for most dyspraxic learners by secondary school. Do not penalise poor presentation when assessing content knowledge.
Dyspraxic learners find organisation tricky, as sequencing involves motor skills (Kirby, 1999). Provide a visual timetable at their desk. Give learners clear, single-step instructions. Allow extra time to move between tasks (Portwood, 2000). A desk buddy helps them quietly recall needed items. This support reduces anxiety and frees their minds to learn (Stein, 2004).
PE and physical activity. Never exclude a dyspraxic learner from PE, but adapt activities so they can participate meaningfully. Replace competitive team sports with individual challenges: "Can you improve your own time?" rather than "Which team wins?" Break complex movements into smaller steps and allow extra practice time. Use targets that are closer and larger. Celebrate effort and personal improvement rather than comparison with peers.
Fine motor activities. In art, design technology, and science, provide alternatives to tasks requiring precise fine motor control. Allow the use of larger tools (thicker paintbrushes, larger scissors with spring-return handles). Pre-cut materials when the cutting itself is not the learning objective. Pair the learner with a partner who can handle the physical manipulation while the dyspraxic learner contributes ideas and planning.
Dyspraxic learners notice when tasks are hard for them (Kirby, 1999). This can cause frustration and anxiety. Celebrate each learner's strengths to build their confidence. Many dyspraxic learners are creative and good at problem-solving. Provide chances to show off these skills publicly. A growth mindset, valuing effort (Dweck, 2006), really helps all learners.
Ask the occupational therapist for classroom exercises if a dyspraxic learner receives their support. Many OT programmes include short "motor breaks" (alertness and coordination activities). Hand-strengthening exercises also take only minutes daily. Integrating these is more effective than only weekly sessions.
Treatments and Interventions
Dyspraxia is not curable, but it is highly manageable with the right interventions. The goal is to help the child develop compensatory strategies and build the motor skills they can improve, while reducing the impact of difficulties that will persist.
- Occupational therapy: The primary intervention for DCD. OTs work on fine motor skills (handwriting, using tools), self-care skills (dressing, eating), and classroom strategies. Programmes like the Cognitive Orientation to daily Occupational Performance (CO-OP) teach children to identify their own motor challenges and develop problem-solving strategies. Research shows CO-OP produces better long-term outcomes than task-specific practice alone (Polatajko and Mandich, 2004).
- Physiotherapy: Focuses on gross motor skills: balance, coordination, strength, and physical fitness. Useful when the learner's primary difficulties are with whole-body movements, sport, and playground activities.
- Speech and language therapy: Required when verbal dyspraxia (childhood apraxia of speech) affects the child's ability to produce clear, fluent speech. This involves intensive practice of mouth movements and sound sequences.
- Educational support: Differentiated teaching approaches, access to technology, extra time in assessments, and targeted intervention programmes within school. For learners with significant needs, an EHC plan may provide additional funding for support staff or specialist resources.
- Sensory integration therapy: Some occupational therapists use sensory integration approaches for learners whose DCD includes sensory processing difficulties. This involves structured activities that challenge the child's balance, proprioception (body awareness), and tactile processing in a supportive environment.
When to Seek Assessment
Teachers should consider referring a learner for assessment when:
- Motor coordination difficulties are persistent (not just a "bad day") and have been present for at least six months
- The learner's motor skills are significantly below what is expected for their age, even after targeted support from the school
- The difficulties are affecting academic progress, social participation, or emotional wellbeing
- Standard classroom assessment strategies are not capturing the learner's true ability because the assessment format requires motor skills the learner lacks
- Parents report similar difficulties at home (dressing, eating, sports, riding a bike)
Sugden and Chambers (2003) found early motor support helps learners. Intervention before age eight creates more progress. Teachers should watch for early signs. Referrals give learners support during key growth, giving them a better chance.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is dyspraxia and how does it affect a child's learning?
Dyspraxia impacts a learner's motor skills and organisation. The brain struggles to send clear signals (Reynolds, 1981). Learners find movements tiring, even with understanding (Smyth & Mason, 1997). Expect difficulties executing tasks (Kirby & Sugden, 2007).
How do teachers implement support for dyspraxic learners in the classroom?
Teachers support learners with writing frames, pencil grips, or laptops for extended tasks. Breaking complex instructions into smaller steps reduces strain on the learner's memory. Physical aids like sloped desks and special scissors help reduce frustration (Rose, 2023).
What are the benefits of early identification for children with coordination difficulties?
Early identification lets teachers act before learners struggle with avoidance or lose confidence. Teachers must spot the signs so occupational therapists can offer crucial support. This early support helps learners manage physical coordination issues (Sugden & Wright, 1998).
What does the research say about the prevalence of dyspraxia in UK schools?
Current studies indicate that developmental coordination disorder affects approximately five to six per cent of all school age children. This statistic suggests that most classrooms will contain at least one or two learners who require specific support for their motor skills. While boys are more frequently referred for assessment, evidence suggests that many girls are missed because their symptoms are less visible.
What are common mistakes when supporting learners with motor planning issues?
Teachers often wrongly assume learners lack motivation when they don't produce work. Writing tires learners, leaving less energy for lesson content. Complex instructions confuse learners who struggle to sequence steps while moving.
How can teachers help dyspraxic learners with handwriting and physical activities?
For handwriting, teachers should focus on the quality of the content rather than the neatness of the letters. Providing alternative ways to record information, such as voice recorders or printed diagrams, can help the learner demonstrate their true knowledge. Teachers should encourage learners to practise their motor skills in short, frequent bursts to build confidence without causing physical exhaustion.
Further Reading: Key Research on Dyspraxia and DCD
Research by Kirby (1999), Smythe and Dumont (2016), and Zwicker (2016) explores dyspraxia. These studies give teachers evidence to support learners. Missiuna et al (2006) and Barnhart et al (2007) offer further clinical insights.
International Consensus on DCD: Definition, Assessment and Treatment View study ↗
187 citations
Blank, R. et al. (2019). Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 61(3), 242-255.
Rosenblum et al (2003) outline DCD diagnostic criteria. They suggest assessment tools like Movement ABC-2. Treatments based on evidence are noted. Professionals supporting learners with dyspraxia should read this.
Brain Activation in Children with DCD: A Systematic Review View study ↗
142 citations
Zwicker, J. G. et al. (2012). International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, 30(2), 73-84.
Researchers analysed brain scans of learners with DCD (developmental coordination disorder). They found differing brain activity during movement (Kirby et al., 1999; Zwicker et al., 2018). This brain-based evidence can explain dyspraxia to parents and colleagues who query the diagnosis (Peters et al., 2009).
DCD in Children: A Practical Guide for Primary School Teachers View resource ↗
National Association for Special Educational Needs (Nasen).
Nasen's guide helps teachers use research. It covers spotting needs, referral routes and classroom changes for primaries. Checklists and templates are included for immediate use (Nasen, n.d.).
The Dyspraxia Foundation: Information for Teachers View resource ↗
Dyspraxia Foundation UK.
Researchers like Kirby et al. (2011) and Sugden (2007) provide valuable insights. The Dyspraxia Foundation offers resources for UK teachers. These resources include classroom strategy sheets and referral process details. Use the pack to explain dyspraxia to learners and parents. The free pack is updated with current research findings.
Cognitive Orientation to Occupational Performance (CO-OP) View resource ↗
Polatajko, H. J. and Mandich, A. (2004). Springer.
CO-OP helps learners with DCD. It uses metacognitive strategies for motor challenges (Rodger et al., 2021). Teachers knowing CO-OP can support therapy goals. They encourage learners to problem-solve motor difficulties themselves (Missiuna et al., 2006).
